Defining Masculinity

All societies have cultural account of gender, but not all have the concept ‘masculinity’. In its modern usage the type of person on is. That is to say, an unmasculine person would behave differently: being peaceable rather than violent, conciliatory rather than violent, conciliatory rather than dominating, hardly able to kick a football, uninterested in sexual conquest, and so forth.
This conception presupposes a belief in individual difference and personal agency. In that sense it is built on the conception of individuality that developed in early-modern Europe with the growth of colonial empires and capitalist economic relations.
But the concept is also inherently relational. ‘Masculinity’ does not exist except in contract with ‘femininity’. A culture which does not treat women and men as bearers of polarized character types, at least in principle, does not have a concept of masculinity in the sense of modern European/American culture.
Historical research suggests that this was true of European culture itself before the eighteenth century. Women were certainly regarded as different from men, but different in the sense of being incomplete or inferior examples of the same character (for instance, having less of the faculty of reason). Women and men were not seen as bearers of qualitatively different characters; this conception accompanied the bourgeois ideology of ‘separate spheres’ in the nineteenth century.
In both the respects our concept of masculinity seems to be a fairly recent historical product, a few hundreds years old at most. In speaking of masculinity at all, then, we are ‘doing gender’ in a culturally specific way. This should be borne in mind with any claim to have discovered trans-historical truths about manhood and the masculine.
Definations of masculinity have mostly taken our cultural standpoint for granted, but have followed different stratergies to characterize the type of person who is masculine. Four main stratergies have been followed;they are easily distinguished in terms of their logic, though often combined in practice.
Essentialist definations usually pick a feature that defines the core of the masculine, and hang an account of men’s lives on that. Freud flirted with an essentialist definition when he equated masculinity with activity in contract to feminism passivity – though he came to see that equation as oversimplified. Later authors’ attempts to capture an essence opf masculinity have been colourfully varied: risk-taking, responsibility, irresponsibility, aggression, Zeus energy ….Perhaps the finest is the sociobiologist Lionel Tiger’s idea that true maleness, underlying male bonding and was is elicited by ‘hard and heavy phenomena’. Many heavy-metal rock fans would agree.
The weakness in the essentialist approach is obvious: the choice of the essence is quite arbitrary. Nothing obliges different essentialists to agree, and in fact they often do not. Claims about a universal basis of masculinity tell us more about the ethos of the claimant than about anything else.
Positivist social science, whose ethos emphasizes finding the facts, yields a simple definition of masculinity: what men actually are. This definition is the logical basis of masculinity: what men actually are. This definition is the logical basis of masculinity/feministy (M/F) scales in psychology, whose items are validated by showing that they discriminate statistically between groups of men and women. It is also the basis of those ethnographic discussions of masculinity which describe the pattern masculinity.
There are three difficulties here. First, as modern epistemology recognizes, there is no descriptions without a standpoint. The apparently natural descriptions on which these definitions rest are themselves underpinned by assumptions about gender. Obviously enough, to start compiling an M/F scale one must have some idea of what to count or list when making up this items.
Second, to list what men and women do require that people be already sorted into the categories ‘men’ and ‘women’. This, as Suzanne Kessler and Wenfy McKenna showes in their classic ethno-methodological study of gender research, is unavoidably a process of social attribution using common-sense typologies of gender. Positivist procedure thus rests on the very typifications that are supposedly under investigation in gender research.
Third, to define masculinity as what-men-empirically-are is to rule out the usage in which we call some women ‘masculine’ and some men ‘feminism’, or some actions or attitudes ‘masculine’ or ‘feminism’ regardless of who displays them. This is not a trival use of the terms. It is crucial, for instance, to psychoanalytic thinking about contraditions within personality.
Indeed, this usage is fundamental to gender analysis. If we spoke only of differences between men as a bloc and men as a bloc, we would not need the terms ‘masculine’ and ‘feminine’ at all. We could just speak of men’s’ and ‘women’s’, or ‘male’ and ‘female’. The terms ‘masculine’ and ‘feminism’ point beyond categorical sex difference to the ways men differ among themselves, and women difer among themselves, in matters of gender.
Normative definations recognize these differences and offer a standard: masculinity is what men ought to be. This definition is often found in media studies, in discussions of exemplars such as John Wayne or of genres such as a social norm for the behaviour of men. In practice, male sex role texts often blend normative with essentialist definations, as in Robert Brannon’s widely quoted account of ‘our culture’s blueprint of manhood’ : No Sissy Stuff, The big Wheel, The Sturdy Oak and Give ’em Hell.
Normative definitions allow that different men approach the standards to different degrees. But this soon produces paradoxes, some of which were recognized in the early Men’s Liberation writings. Few men actually match the ‘blueprint’ or display the toughness and independence acted by Wayne, Bogart or Eastwood. (This point is picked up by film itself, in spoofs such as Blazing Saddles and Play it Again, sam.) What is ‘normative’ about a norm hardly anyone meets? Are we to say the majority of men are unmasculine? How do we assay the toughness needed to resist the noem o toughness, or the heroism needed to some out as gay?
A more subtle difficulty is that a purely normative definition gives no grip on masculinity at the level of personality, Joseph Pleck correctly identified the unwarranted assumption that role and identify correspond. This assumption is, I think, why sex role theorists often drift towards essentialism.
Semiptic approaches abandon the level of personality and define masculinity through a system of symbolic difference in which masculine and feminism places are contrasted. Masculinity is, in effect, defined as not – femininity.
This follows the formulae of structural linguistics, where elements of speech are defined by their differences from each other. The approach has been widely used in feminist and post-structuralist cultural analyses of gender and in Lacanism psychoanalysis and studies of symbolism. It yields more than an abstract contract of masculinity and femininity, of the kind found in M/F scales. In the semiotic opposition of masculinity and femininity, scales. In the semiotic opposition of masculinity and femininity, masculinity is the unmarked term, the place of symbolic authority. The phallus is master-signifier, and femininity is symbolically defined by lack.
The definition of masculinity has been very effective in cultural analysis. It escapes the arbitrariness of essentialism and the paradoxes of positivist and normative definations. It is, however, limited in its scope – unless one assumes, as some postmodern theorists do, that discourse is all we can talk about in social analysis. To grapple with the full range of issues about masculinity we need ways of talking about relationships of other kinds too: about gendered places in production and consumption, places in institution and in natural environments, places in social and military struggles.
What can be generalized is the principle of connection. The idea that one symbol can only be understood within a connected system of symbol applies equally well in other spheres. No masculinity arises except in a system

Nepal and it's political environment

A country once known as the country of brave Gorkhali, the country where lord Buddha born, where ariniko was born, where the Highest peak,Mount Everest, of the world lies, the country of the the great Himalayas etc. is Nepal. It is a kind of country where every kind of people are found and where every individual lives as brother and sisters (with harmony). A country where every people from every culture respects others culture's festival, where if one individual who is guest are treated as VIP. A country which is rich in natural resources and is like a heaven in the world map.
Every one might be surprised to know why i began writing this way. It is because it is all the facts i have mentioned above has become once upon a time. Now every thing has changed. As we know every thing undergoes certain kind of changes whether it may take few years or many years. Every one know that it has taken millions and millions of years for development of human civilization in the world history. For any country it may take many years to get developed. But it very different in case of Nepal. Once Nepal was like a heaven, prosperous and developing in positive manner. But the process of destruction have become so fast that no one have ever imagined that so fact Nepal would be developed in the process of producing pollution, polluting water resources, and involved in internal conflicts.
Above mentioned facts are true and the main factor for this is those individuals who are being elected by the citizens of this country and their desire to be power so that they can rule the country and collect as much amount of nation's budget for them-self. No one among the political parties are free from corruption and self oriented. No one cares about the countries development and betterment of the countries economic, political environment, increase the life standard of the local individual, increase the countries economic activities, tourism, trade etc. Every one just cares is about how to collect as much amount as they can possibly collect for their own enjoyment. Every party says that we are the representatives of the nation so we should care about the nations development by in reality every one is just saying those just to get to the power.
Due to the political instability and conflicts among the parties non of the activities which are productive have been able to be done. When one party tries to one thing then another party will try to disturb that parties work by organizing bandas, chakka jams, riots, etc. and say that our party is always in the support of development and people's prosperity.

Political environment and development

For the development of any country the country should have to be strong from the security point of view, economic point of view, cultural point of view, tourism point of view etc. Most of all the country should have sound political environment for the development of any country. Only those countries which have sound political environment can develop easily because each and every factors are directly or indirectly related to the political environment and its components.
Stability in political environment means good business environment, proper understanding between all the political parties, all the different types of communities and the people representing them. If there is misunderstanding between the people representing different groups of ethnic group, society, group of people, district, etc then there arises the problem of political conflict resulting into formation of unstable environment where if one party tries to do anything good then another individual will try to oppose all the action done by that individual party.
In any country if there are only two parties then the pr0blem of conflict arises very rarely but if in any country there are more than two party then obviously there will be the problem of conflict among the different individual representing the different parties as a leader. As we know that every person tries to become the head of the country and his all works are directed towards the achievement of the post as the head of the country/nation. So he will do what ever he can do to come to power, it may be by staying in the opposition and disturbing the development activities or by not cooperating with the governing party for the accomplishment of that parties motto or work.
Every thing an individual or any individual country tries to accomplish is by the construction of different types of project, introducing new type of technology so that the people of that country can benefits from that. But what ever may be the reason the main thing required for the introduction of any alternatives is money. For this if the countries economic sector is flourishing then only the country will have sufficient funds for the development works, the countries money income will remain inside the country and all the produced goods will be consumed the ordinary users by paying little amount. But if the business activities are hampered/disturbed then all the big industries will slowly by slowly close down and then the country will have to dependent on foreign goods. When the import will increase then surely the countries budget will go outside of the country and the country will be more poorer and poorer.
So in order to develop any country the political condition should be stable and only all other environment will flourish easily.

Politics

Kate Miller defined politics as any power-structured relationship in which one group of persons is controlled by another. Contemporary feminists refuse to use traditional political concepts (for example, the concept of political delegation, or vicarious politics) and prefer a concept of personalized politics. See Mies (1983).
Liberal feminism is based on a politics of antidiscrimination and opposes laws that establish different rights for women and for men. Liberal feminism accepts that many established political procedures such as universal suffrage, free elections or freedom of assembly, are adequate to eradicate discrimination. The goal of socialist feminist politics, on the other hand, is to abolish these socially constituted categories and develop a form of political with the political practice which can link the personal with the political. Socialist feminism criticizes the ways centralized forms of political organization replicate sexual and other divisions in the larger society. One alternative to centralized politics is participatory democracy where decisions are made by everyone. However, Sheila Rowbotham, and others, suggests that this form of politics is problematic unless everyone has a respect for the other’s experience. See Rowbotham (1979).
Structural functional analysis shows that political socialization, or the process by which a person acquires a political repertoire, occurs through sex roles and childhood experiences with father figures and authority patterns. Hence the goal of radical feminist politics is for women to deconstruct this past and gain control over our own bodies. A radical feminist politics will build a feminist culture in a new society of women-dentered spaces. However, the politics of separatism, Black feminist claim, ignores the way working-class and Black women political interest in common with men. See Combahee River Collective (1981).

ACID RAIN

The precipitation of acidic material in the atmosphere in the form of rain is known as Acid rain. It is caused due to increase in hydrogen ion in atmosphere. Usually rain is very much useful for the organism (plant, animal) and environment. But when the content of acid is found to occur more in the atmosphere then the rain will be harmful. Acid rain is harmful for plant, animals, marine organisms, along with different kinds of infrastructures through the wet deposition. In any surrounding or environment when there is excess emission of compound containing ammonia, carbon, sulfur and nitrogen the danger of mixing of these compounds with water increases resulting into the creation / production of acid rain. Since 1970s Different measures have been undertaken by different government of different countries for the reduction of production of these compounds mentioned above into the Earth’s atmosphere.

As the industrial revolution began to spread the development of new technology, new way of treatment, new type of vehicle are being constructed or made. But this trend of development has also resulted into the emission of more and more amount of emission of the above mention compounds. For the first time acid rain was discovered during 1852, but detailed studies about the acid rain has begun during 1960s. Robert Agnus Smith was the first individual who had first time described about the acid rain and its effect on its surrounding environment. The effect of acid rain is seen more seen in Europe, China, USA etc where sulfur containing coal have been continuously being burned up to generate heat and electricity.

Acid rain is the result of the industrial revolution but is affecting the living and non living things in different ways. For example many of he aquatic animals are dying due to the effect of the acidic rain water. Not only the aquatic animals but also the forest are also been affected by the acid rain . An example for the effect on the vegetation due to the acid rain is the rain forest or Jizera Mountains, Czech Republic. The effect of acid rain is seen more on different kinds of plants but the effect of acid rain can be reduced on the food crops by the use of lime and different kinds of fertilizers to maintain the level of loss of nutrition from soil.

As every individual knows clearly that when acid reacts with limestone then limestone will slowly get reduced . Not only the limestone but also in different types of rocks the effect of acid rain is seen clearly. When the acid rain begins then the outer surface of the house will suffer heavily due to the effect of acid rain. Not only the effect of acid rain is seen in buildings but its effect is also seen in the different kinds of statues, stone tablets, stone sculpture. To know it properly we can also see the following equation
CaCO3 (s) + H2SO4 (aq) =CaSO4 (aq) + CO2 (g) + H2O (l)
Here it is shown that when sulfuric acid reacts with the compound containing calcium then calcium sulfate carbon dioxide and water is formed.

As we know the symbol of love is the Taj Mahal constructed by the Great Khan king of Mugal emperor known as Shah Jahan in the memory of his beloved wife. But due to the danger of acid rain there has been more concern of people towards the damaging of the outer surface by the acid rain. Not only taj mahal but also on different types of wonder the danger of acid rain have increased.

Reforestation

Reforestation is replanting of trees and protecting the forest reserves that already exists. This is an important factor that the people should be made aware of because Nepal is a country that IS heavily dependent on agriculture and goods farming is directly dependent on natural factors.

Trees are very valuable to the human race, economically and health wise. There are many reasons why we should have reforestation. On being mostly that we need forests to live, without which the carbon cycle cannot be completed, and without which there would be desertification. we must remember that forest do not grow as easily as they used to because of fires and other disasters. This is why many forests are planned and cared for. Most of us will never know how they form out because for a forest to completely grow, it needs within anywhere from 60 to 100 years to grow.
Trees not only bring rain but it helps prevent landslides too. This is the most important factor in a farming communities. During drought the amount of extra rain will be like blessing for the farmers.
Replanting of forests is very crucial ti the human race. The earth depends in many cycles, where one organization depends on the other because of what it does. We exhale carbon dioxide, which the trees intake and give us oxygen back during their photosynthesis.
This is the 21st century in which we are living. New technology are being developed for the betterment of the human life. But for the development of the society and the country we are using the resources too much and depleting the no. of trees being currently found in this world. We are doing every thing and remembering everything but slowly by slowly forgetting the importance of the forest and trees. So, Before i end this topic i would like you all individuals to remember not to cut down trees and try to plant as much as possible trees you can.

Marriage: A restriction for women

Marriage is the unification of two different individual into a kind of relationship for a life time. From the pre-medieval age there had been a tendency of sending of women to men’s house in the form of bride. When a women is in the house of her parents she stays as a child and when she gets transferred to her husband get converted into women. She will enjoy full freedom when she is in her parents’ house. But as she enters into a relation of marriage then her days of freedom will slowly by slowly vanish. Her new responsibility is towards her husband’s father, mother, and whole family of husband.

During the old ages in Hindu society husband were assumed as god. Women used to believe that the husband can do anything and women were just to stay inside their corridors. They were not allowed to interact with unknown men. They used to think that everything a man does is right and even if the man bits the women she used to pray her husband.
But as the technology has got advancement and the concept of equal education system had developed. Now women get full freedom in the written form but still she is being tortured in different forms. During the time before marriage she has to obey her parents rules and when she reach her own house after marriage then also she is not given full freedom by not allowing to work, not allowing to interact with unknown individual. When she first gets married then she has some responsibility towards her husband and her father-in-law, mother-in-law and other members, and when she attains the age of mother hood or becomes mother then she is more restricted to do any other things and should pay full attention towards her child too.

Change in climate and perception of people towards it

In this 21st century the problem related to climatic change had been of main concern. As mentioned in the previous article of Climate change and its impact on the human life, it had been made clear to us about the different reasons for climatic change, and its different impact on the human civilization.

The impact of this climatic change is seen in different sectors especially in farms. Farmers are too much affected by the climatic changes because of the untimely rainfall. Due to the untimely rainfall and unpredictable nature of climate it has become harder for farmer to plough any particular kind of crops which can be only be grown at a certain climatic condition. Like some crops like rice needs rainy season but it has become difficult to predict the exact time for the rainfall.

The effect of the climatic change is more seen in those countries which are agriculture based and posses very less access towards the technology. All the developed countries maintain some sort of way for plugging and irrigating their farms for crop and vegetable production but for those underdeveloped countries it is very difficult to irrigate. So, those farmers from those countries should mainly depend upon the rain water. But due to the change in the climate it has become very difficult for those farmers to grow any type of crops.

A survey done by myself during 2009-02 in the area of hilly side of Pokhera (Lwang, Sikhelekh, one of the tourism site of Nepal), I found that people whose main occupation was land farming and cattle farming have changed their occupation from farming to foreign workers. It is mainly due to the change in the climatic change and untimely rainfall; it had become very difficult for them to do the irrigation of crops. Not only this but due to global warming the snow caps are getting melted more faster then ever predicted so due to which the natural water stream has also been drastically disturbed(All the sources are slowly getting dried up).

Climate change and its impact on the human life

This is 21st century and during this century the most important topic is the change in the pattern of climate and the impact of the change in the human as well as plant and animal’s life. The main reason for the climatic change is increasing temperature, global warming, pollution, increasing population etc. As everyone knows clearly that the human civilization has developed from the caveman age to coin age and the process of development kept on increasing by reaching this modern 21st and will reach the age of robotics and so on. No matter which ever age do the human civilization reach it will keep on inventing new and improved technology for the effective and efficient utilization of human as well as non-human resources. Like everything has its own type of positive or negative impact on the human civilization. The positive impact will be the technological advancement for betterment of human life. And the negative impact is the environmental pollution and dettoriation of natural resources whether it may be raw materials, non renewable resources or renewable resources.

As mentioned above about human civilization we conclude that as human civilization has developed from caveman age till the modern age new and new improved technology have been constructed , but on the contrary it has also resulted in the depletion of natural resources like petroleum products, forests, water resources, minerals, soil, air etc. Not only this but also the depletion of atmosphere is also done which resulted the depletion of ozone layer(which prevented us from different types of cancers caused due to the exposure of human and animal’s to the UV rays of the sun).
As we know that the human being is over-utilization of petroleum product and excess use of too much CFC producing equipments has resulted in the increase in the level of co2. This increase in the level of carbon dioxide and other type of pollution produced by the industrial sectors has increased the tendency of melting down of all the snow of mountain caps, glacial lakes not only this but also the melting down of Big icecap of the both poles (north and south) have resulted in the increase in the level of ocean water.
As we know that everything has been in balance by the balanced proportion of one element with another. It is the rule of nature. It is also applicable in the case of ocean water which contains 50% of pure water and 50% of salinity in it. Due to the balanced proportion of water and salt level in ocean water all the condition of the natural balance was in equal proportion. But due to the mixing of the melted ice water in the ocean have resulted in the increase in level of water in the ocean and the balance between salt and water in ocean water have been disturbed. Due to this the pressure belt also shifted from one position to another resulting the untimely rainfall, bad weather condition or the change in the climatic condition everywhere in the world.
Due to the mixing of icy water in the ocean water not only the change in the climatic condition is seen but also the ocean water has also increased resulted in the disappearance of small island countries. Not only this but also the problem of tsunami and Katrina has been occasionally been seen now a days.

Kathmandu a city of what

Kathmandu is the city capital of Nepal. It is a city of dream, a city of hope and a representation of success for those poor people living in the urban place of Nepal. People from outside of valley(Kathmandu) assume that when you have a big house to live in Kathmandu then you will have reputation in between your family members'. Due to this reason people from outside of the valley always migrate from their home town(village) to Kathmandu for living. For some extent this fact is true because all the resources needed for development of the life style , society, culture, etc are all being accumulated in the Kathmandu valley. From the history the trend of settlement of people in the capital is always the same, resulting in the development of the country's economy, industry, society, etc. But in case of this capital of Nepal, this trend is increasing and resulting in the negative development of the society. As people accumulated from outside of the valley to the Kathmandu the pattern of pollution, crisis of water, electricity crisis, increase in the CFC's level in the atmosphere , increasing traffic jam, increase in sound pollution, increase in accident has been seen repeatedly and this trend is also increasing day by day. As we know that each and every capital has its own type of specialty, like London has big Ben, Paris has Eiffel tower, which can be the main attraction for tourists. But in case of Nepal its capital is famous for sticks, bandas, chakka jam, political strikes, etc. Once Nepal was known as the land of peace and prosperity but due to the above mentioned facts now Nepal is known as politically unstable.

Though people know it well that education system in kathmandu is very expensive, where there is more lock down of schools and universities , increasing prices of goods, lack of job opportunity, difficult for existence, and insecurity of life, they still continue to Kathmandu in search of their key to their dreamworld's door.

Deflation Blessing or curse

Deflation is the state of decrease in the general price of any goods or services. It occurs in the economy due to the annual fall in the inflation rate less than 0%. It results in the increase in the purchasing power of general public. Due to inflation the real monetary value increase increasing the capacity of people to buy goods without increase in their real income. It is contrary to inflation, where the real money value increases. During the time of deflation the purcahsing power of people of low income or fixed income will increase rapidly where as the people with fluctuating income (business man) will suffer very much.

Now-a-days economists believe that in modern economy deflation causes decrease in the price of goods which leads to decrease in the production of goods(level of production). This results to the situation of decrease in the wage rate and decrease in the demand of labour. In short we can conclude that deflation is caused due to the decrease in the general price level resulting in the decrase of the production and decrease in the employment level in the labour market.

Some negative impact of deflation are

• Increase in crime
• Decrease in production
• Decrease in no of investors
• Decrease in production company
• Decrease in the level of employment int he general employment level
• Instability in the economy
• Discouragement prevails
  

A good example of the depretion is the great Depretion of USA (1929-1930) during which the level of employment and price of goods were so much decreased that many of the production companies had closed down resulting in the creation of unemployment increase upto 25% where as in other countries it reached about 33%, Price level of crop decreased upto 60%. As we can clearly seen the chart that unemployment how increased and reached above 20% during the time of deflation and after the state of deflation how unemployment decreased up to 5%.

Bagmati and it's surrounding

Bagmati is one of the important river’s of Nepal which flows through the Kathmandu valley by separating Kathmandu and Lalitpur. In hindu as well as Buddhist religion it has a very important place. One of the most important religious temple of hindus(pashupati nath temple) along with other hindu temples (Gokarna temple, Dachhinkali temple) are also located by the bank of this Bagmati river. According to hindu’s tradition all the dead bodies must 3 times be dipped into the bagmati river before cremation begins. Usually the son(first son of the family) who gives fire to the dead body of their parents/relatives must immediately take bath with the holy water from the river bagmati since this river is considered as the symbol of purity in hindu religion.
This river’s main source is at Bagwaar located on the northern hill of Kathmandu valley.Here three stream join with each other. Mountain stream that passes over the boulder transforms into a larger river. This river flows about 10 km throughout the valley by passing Pashupati nath temple towards the south where is combines with monahara khola and enters the city area by turning west. Here it combines with dhobi khola, Tukucha khola , Vishnumati khola,etc. Leaving the city it passes through the dachhinkali temple, cut through mahabaharat range crosses the sivalik hill, reach terai, and reaches india by passing nepal’s territory..
The pollution of this bagmati river begins from outside the valley by agricultural land, and human and when enters the valley is polluted by untreated household wastages through drainage

To know more about the problem of bagmati river just click here

Indicator of economic development

There is misunderstanding among the economists over the indicators of economic development. Some of the economists have taken national product as the indicator of economic development. Some other economists have taken per capita income as the indicator of economic development. Likewise some other economists have taken economic welfare as the indicator of economic development. Various economists have taken material living standard index as the indicator of economic development. Economists of this thought have taken life-span, death rate, literacy rate as the bases. Similarly United Nations Development Program (UNDP) has developed Human Development Index (HDI) as the indicator of economic development. The indicators are income, literacy and life expectancy. The pointed of indicators lies between 0 and 1. The position upto 0.5 is the lower class of human development. From 0.5 to 0.8 is the middle class and above 0.8 is the upper class. The base of economic development indicators are as follows.
1. Per-capita income criteria
Some economists have taken economic development indicator on the basis of the increase in per-capita income. According to the classification given by the United Nations Organization in 1989 AD. countries having per capita income less than 580 U. S dollars fall in the class of poor countries, countries having per capita income between 580 US dollars and 6,000 US dollars are in the middle class, and countries having per capita income more than 6,000 US dollars are in the class of rich countries. According to World Development Report 2009, per capita income of Nepal is 340 US dollars. Such indicator makes the comparative study of different countries easy. On the basis of per capita income the economic growth rate of any country can be found out. The increase in per capita income of any country shows the increase in economic growth rate of the country. The high per-capita income are given in the table below:
Table
Per capita income of Seven Rich Countries of the world.

S.No Country Per-capital income (in US dollar)
1. Norway 76,450
2. Switzerland 59,880
3. Denmark 54,910
4. Ireland 48,140
5. Sweden 46,060
6. United States of America 46,040
7. Netherlands 45,820
Source: World Development Report 2009
Likewise per-capital income of south Asian countries is as follows:
Table
South Asian Countries and their Per-Capita Income

S.No Country Per-capital income (in US dollar)
1. Bangladesh 470
2. India 950
3. Nepal 340
4. Pakistan 870
5. Sri Lanka 1540
Source : World development report 2009
2. National income criteria
Some economists have taken increase in the real national income as the indicator of economic development because per-capita income also depends upon the national income. National income is related with the final goods and services produced in a country. According to this method the state of continuous increase in national income can be taken as economic development. This is specially applicable for the poor and middle class countries. Short-run increase in national income cannot be taken as economic development. Likewise increase in the national income as a result of increase in price of goods and services cannot be defined as economic development. The best way of calculating national income is the gross national product.
3. Physical quality of life index - PQLI
This is non-income indicator of economic development because this uses physical quality of life as the indicator. This method of measuring economic development is based on the following three things. They are:–
(a) Life expectancy
(b) Infant mortality
(c) Literacy.
The scale of all these things measured is between zero (0) and hundred (100) shows the lowest level and 100 shows the highest level. If in any country life expectancy measured is maximum, ie. 100 and the other two indicators are measured minimum i.e., zero then giving equal weightage to each indicator a competitive index is prepared from the average of all three. Likewise index of a country with high literacy rate will be 100. Countries having low life expectancy, low literacy rate and high infant mortality will have low index (ie. 0). If in any country PQLI is increasing then it indicates the increase in the physical quality of the life of people:
Increase in per-capita income does not necessarily indicate the increase in the facilities like healthy food, health, situation, education, etc. Therefore PQLI method is taken to be better indicator than per-capita income method.
4. Human development index - HDI
Human development index is new and modern indicator of economic development. This indicator was for the first time developed by United Nations Development Program (UNDP) in the year 1990 AD. This indicator is based on three things; They are as follows:
(a) Income for decent living
(b) Education
(e) Life expectancy.
As PQLI, HDI also divides all nations of the world in the scale of 0 to 1 on the basis of three objectives of development. In this method minimum of 0 and maximum of 1 value is given. This method has classified all nations of the world in three different classes. Low human development in from 0 to 0.50. Medium human development in from 0.51 to 0.79 and high human development is from 0.80 to 1.0. Since this method measures the relative level of human development, this focuses on life expectancy, education and physical choice. This takes per-capita income as an indicator the change in monetary value is adjusted in GNP. This is measured on the basis of the unofficial education and middle age of school going population. In this method on the basis of the development of skill of all the adults and infant mortality and the nutritious food they get. When all three indicators are included an important indicator of human HDI is measured development will be obtained. On the basis of this, human development index (HDI) of different countries is obtained. In addition to this on the basic of basis necessity criteria also economic development indicators can be obtained. In addition to these various indicators the following facts are also taken as the indicators of economic development.
(a) Equality improvement.
(b) Poverty alleviation
(c) Quality of life
(d) Capital formation
(e) Fulfillment of basic needs.
(f) Population growth rare
(g) Increase in employment opportunities.
(h) Decrease in dependence on agriculture
(i) Increase in entrepreneurship
(j) Utilisation of natural resources
(k) Increase in export of finished goods.
(l) Trade diversification
(m) Extension of infrastructures
(n) Extension of markets.
(o) Improvement in technology
(p) Urbanisation, Gender equality, Human rights, etc.

Characteristics of Developing countries

Developing or underdeveloped countries are those countries in which most of the citizens are compelled to live below poverty line. As a result of this problems in consumption arise in various time periods due to scarcity or shortages of goods and services. In such countries technical and monetary level will be of low quality. In such countries there will be no proper association between production, consumption and distribution. As a result of unemployment propensity to consume will be high resulting in low saving and low investment. In such countries available natural resources will not be utilized property or adequately. In view of these various reasons the per capita income of such countries will also be low.
Developing or underdeveloped economy is that economy in which there are low level of living, absolute poverty, low per capita income, low consumption level, poor health services, high death and birth rates and dependence on foreign countries. Despite having high possibilities of economic development such countries are in the group of underdeveloped countries. Low per capita income unequal distribution of national income, major section of the people dependent upon agriculture, inefficient administration, objectiveless political parties, lack of development in industries, lack of job oriented education, etc. are the characteristics of underdeveloped countries. On the basis of these various facts the characteristics of underdeveloped countries can be explained as follows:
1. Low per capita income
Per capita income in underdeveloped countries will be very low. As a result the living standard of the people of such countries will also be very low. People will have difficulty in consuming even daily necessity goods. People will not even get the minimum daily calories (2124 calories) required. This will have an adverse effect in their health. Countries like Burundi, Congo Dem. Rep., Liberia, Ethiopia etc. are the countries with very low income. The countries with very low per capita income in the world are as follows:
Table
World's Poor countries and their per-capita income

S.No Country Per-capital income (in US dollar)
1. Burundi 110
2. Congo. Dem. Rep. 140
3. Liberia 150
4. Ethiopia 220
5. Eritrea 230
6. Sierra Leone 260
7. Niger 280
Source : World development report 2009
2. Agro-based economy
Underdeveloped countries are mainly dependent on agriculture. Since large number of people of such countries live in rural areas they depend upon agriculture. Though dependent on agriculture, only a small part of national income will be contributed by agriculture. The main reason for this is the lack of opportunities for employment and lack of development in industrial sector. About 80% of people of Nepal are directly or indirectly dependent upon agriculture. But about 40% of the national income is contributed by the agricultural sector. But contrary to this in developed countries only minor section of the population will be dependent upon agriculture. Thus, main characteristic of underdeveloped countries is taken to be agro-based economy.
3. Unemployment problem
Unemployment problem is another main characteristic of underdeveloped countries. In such countries due to lack of trained human resources major fraction of the population remains unemployed. Therefore in such countries there will be problems like unemployment, semi-unemployment and seasonal unemployment. The main cause of unemployment is the lack of alternative employment opportunities in other sectors besides agriculture. Semi-unemployment and seasonal unemployment arises in agricultural sector. This is because in underdeveloped countries farmers remain unemployed for rest of the year after working for 3 or 4 months. Likewise in underdeveloped countries agriculture also depends upon season. Therefore if rainfall is on time and sufficient then farmers will have employment for some time only. But if effect of climate is adverse then farmers will be unemployed for even longer time. In underdeveloped countries there will be lack of alternative employment opportunities. Therefore large fraction of population will be unemployed.
4. Traditional techniques of production
In underdeveloped countries technology of production will be based on traditional techniques. Developed countries increase the level of production with the application of new and improved technology. But in underdeveloped countries goods are produced with old technology. As a result productivity of such countries will be very low. The main reason for this is lack of capital, lack of trained human resources, etc. In such countries due to high level of poverty there will be no development in financial institutions. Due to lack of financial institutions the people will not have the habit of saving and also due to high level of poverty their saving capacity will also be very low. Thus as a result of lack of capital investment, in how technology will not be possible. In such countries due to low level of investment the production will also be very low.
5. Unbalanced trade
In underdeveloped countries the balance in trade will always be unbalanced. This is because in such countries import will be more than export. As a result there will be unbalanced trade and balance of payments will also be unbalanced. Lack of capital, lack of facility in transportation and communication, lack of raw materials, lack of markets, etc. are the main causes for the unbalanced trade and imbalance in the balance of payments. Though some raw materials are available in such countries, instead of producing finished goods from those raw materials, the raw materials are exported. As a result income from trade will be low and such countries will be poor.
6. Lack of entrepreneurs
In underdeveloped countries due to various reasons there will be lack of entrepreneurs. Lack of capital, lack of technical knowledge, very limited markets etc. are the main reasons for the lack of entrepreneurs in underdeveloped countries. Due to these various reasons the businessmen are not interested in investing in such countries. In such countries due to excessive poverty also there will very few investors or entrepreneurs. In such countries there will also be lack of policies which motivate investment. In such countries there will be few industrialists only and they will exploit consumers by creating monopoly over various goods and services. This is because the main objective of such entrepreneurs is profit earning rather the economic development of the country.
7. Dualistic economy
In developing countries there will be a mixture of two types of economic system. One will be based on traditional system and the other one will be based on modern system. In such countries traditional economic system will be present in the rural sectors and the modern economic system will be practised in a few limited urban sectors. Thus, in rural areas there will be lack of infrastructures such as roads and transportation, schools and colleges, communication facilities, etc. In such sectors agricultural industries based on traditional system will be present. This will not make the economic system efficient and strong. On the other hand in urban areas there will be facilities of roads and transportation, modern schools and colleges, communication and modern facilities. In urban areas some modern industries and factories will also be established. So, due to dualistic economy the society will be divided into two different classes this will slow down the economic growth even more because rich people of rural areas will migrate towards urban areas having various modern facilities. As a result urban living will also be difficult.
8. High population growth rate
As compared to developed countries the population growth rate is very high in underdeveloped countries. The higher population growth is one of the main reasons for Nepal in being an underdeveloped country. According to the latest census of Nepal 2001 AD the population growth rate is 2.24 percent but population growth rate of developed countries is less than 1 percent.
9. Low utilization of natural resources
In underdeveloped countries natural resources are used partially or in very small quantity. In such countries the true facts about the availability of natural resources will not be known. The utilization of the available natural resources will also be very low. In such countries the various natural resources such as forest resources, water resources, minerals, etc. will be available in large quantity. But these natural resources will not be utilized properly for the long-run economic development. Despite the availability of natural resources in large quantity such countries will not be able to exploit those resources for the benefit of the country. For example, Nepal has the capacity of producing 83,000 mega watts of hydro-electricity, but the production of hydro-electricity is very low. Not even one percent has been produced.
10. Political instability
In underdeveloped countries there is always political instability. No elected government will be able to work for the full term. This is because in such countries major fraction of the population will be illiterate. Such people will have lack of political awareness. Leaders and party workers are motivated in getting different posts by various ways and use such posts as earning place. Due to lack of administrative ability administrative work will be unsystematic. Salary required for the fulfillment of the basic requirements will not be given to the office staff. As a result they will be engaged in earning through illegal means. As a result corruption will increase and political instability will be created.
11. Gender discrimination
In underdeveloped countries gender discrimination will be in intensive form. In such countries role of women will be negligible. There will be majority of males in every sector of employment. As a result women will be limited to only household works. Women don't have right in acquiring parental wealth and property. Literacy of females is also very low as compared to that of males. In rural areas females are even deprived from getting enough food. Thus in underdeveloped countries there will be a great discrimination between males and females.
12. Lack of development of infrastructure
In underdeveloped countries there will be lack of development of infrastructure. In such countries facilities of transportation and communication will not be expanded adequately. One a small fraction of the population of such countries will have access to hydro-electricity power. Expansion of banking and financial institutions will be inadequate. For this reason the farmers of the rural areas will have to depend upon high interest rates of landlords and money lenders. The farmers are even exploited by the people of such class. People have to travel on foot for weeks to go from one place to another. So, lack of development of infrastructures is also the major problem of the underdeveloped countries.

A defination of environment

Environment, generally refer to the surrounding environment and its components which surrounds us , including all living as well as non-living things .The natural environment and its concept can be differentiated by its component:

* A unit of ecology which functions as natural system without Man's disturbance, which includes all types vegetation ,animal, microorganism, atmosphere, rock , soil, and Natural activities which occurs within their own boundaries.

* Universal natural , Physical phenomena & resource which lacks clear-cut boundary,i.e; climate, air, and water, as well as Electric charge, radiation, magnetism, and energy, that not originated from human activities.

We the human civilizations are the greatest gift of the environment in the whole. But this gift has been misusing the environment itself by polluting it. It presumes itself as the supreme of all creatures found in the mother earth and shows its supremacy by constructing sky touching buildings, destructive weapons, Depleting natural resource’s source by excess utilization of the natural resource, i.e.; “air, water, soil, mineral resources, forest”, showing its control over the poor and helpless creature. It has grown from few groups to huge sizes, from small place to big countries and cities. Where ever they go they show the movie of destruction instead of construction.

For each n every creature the environment is important because their existence fully depends on the existence of the environment. No any creature can sustain without the environment. But due to human activities of polluting more n more environmental resources the problem of global warming has aroused rapidly. Due to the increasing global warming it has drastically changed the environment of today’s world. To know more about this we can see the following information.

· Nepal's environment has suffered the effect of consequent soil erosion and deforestation, agricultural encroachment, & contaminated water supply. Between the 1960s till 1970s, forestlands declined by 8% (30% - 22%) of the total area, mainly because of the need of timber for firewood, which supplied more than 90% of Nepal's fuel’s requirement. Moreover, it’s estimated for the erosion to cause the loss of 240 million cubic meter of topsoil every year.

· During 1957 every forest of Nepal were nationalized. But the effort of reforestation been to its minimal level. In 1980s, a forest conservation program started which included the nurseries of trees in village, free distributions of seeds, and provision for wood-burning stoves. However during 1985 the rate of deforestation averaged to 324 sq mi per year, whereas reforestation was only for 4,000 hectares each year. There was an additional 14.4% loss of forest from 1983-1993. The FAO estimated that at this rate by 2015 the forests of Nepal will be completely wiped out.

· Water and air pollution are significant environmental problems in Nepal. According to U.N.'s sources, the nation produced 3,300 tons of hydrocarbons ,18,000 tons of carbon monoxide and per year. Roughly the nation's one-third city inhabitant & two-thirds of all rural dweller do not get pure water for drinking which has created health hazard.

· During 2001, 28 mammals, 27 bird, as well as 7 plant species in the verse of disappearance (extinction). Some of the endangered species found in the Nepal are the snow leopard, One horned rhino, Asian elephant, Royal Bengal tiger, pygmy hog, swamp deer, gavial, Assam rabbit, wild yak, and chi pheasant.

Gender

Gender was first originated from the English word gendre. Gender refers to roles and behaviors that any society considers appropriate for women as well as men. Each and every one in this society has their own kind of roles and responsibility towards the society. Thus, distinct behavior and roles might arise the question of gender inequality, i.e. Difference between women and men will systematically favor one group. Thus originated inequality may lead to inequality between women and men in different sectors like health status and access to health care.
The WHO referred gender as "the socially constructed roles, behaviors, activities, and attributes that a given society considers appropriate for men and women". Gender refers to any set character that any individual shows which may be biological, emotional, one’s role and responsibility towards its family, society, nation etc. As a word it is single, but if understood properly it has numerous meanings. In our daily life Gender has various definitions’ but here it refers to an individual’s sex or a kind of sense of being male or female irrespective of one another. There are mainly two type of gender
Male (masculine)
Female (Feminine)
The above given definition was based on the traditional concept of defining the gender. But now in the 21st century a new type of gender is prevailing rapidly in the society. Now the types of gender are
1. Male(Masculine)
2. Female(Feminine)
3. Inter-gender
a) Male (Gay)
b) Female (Lesbian)
Genders identity refers to an option available to any member of society to select from any set of social identity which is based on the combination of anyone's sex identity on one hand, and natural gender, interest and social experience on the other hand. Some ancient tribe has more than 5 human genders. Mostly in non-Western society has three human gender - Women, man and third gender. In West, gender is considered to be invalid concept (considered to be the same as one's sex organ), for which only two valid option are available —male or female. Any gender varying from own sex identity is treated as a disease or abnormal individual.

Defination of Economic development

Introduction
Economic development is a dynamic concept. Thus, economic prosperity of any country can be defined as the economic development. For this reason specially in developing countries economic development is related to economic prosperity. In general economic development is taken to be the development and expansion of material capital. But in modern times the development of social and human capital is also covered by taken economics development. Economic development is only a part of overall development. However, it includes every sector in one way or the other. Economic development affects social, political, technical, religious and cultural development.
Economic development has direct relation with the economic problems of underdeveloped countries. This is because economic development brings about an intensive change in the economic structure. This will increase the income as well as improve the life standard of the people. Therefore economic development is the positive and quantitative growth of the underdeveloped countries. This brings about change in technology, distribution and consumption. This alleviates poverty, increases national production, increases national income and per capita income and shows symptoms in the improvement of individual and social sectors.
According to Prof. Meier, "Economic development is the process where by the real per capital income of a country increases over a long period of time-subject to stipulations that the number of people below and absolute poverty line does not increase, and that the distribution of income does not become more unequal". Likewise according to W. Arther Lewis, "Economic development means the increase in per capita production."
As mentioned in the World Development Report 1991, "Economic development is defined as a suitable increase in living standard that encompass material consumption, education, health and environmental protection."
According to Gunar Mydral, "Development is away from underdevelopment or poverty."
So, economic development means the process of changing living style to modern ways of living. This type of change is also known as modernization. Thus, development is not only related to material wants of people, but it also looks upon the requirements for the improvement of the social status of the people. For this reason economic development refers not only to economic growth but also to the economic change in the social and cultural sectors. National product, national income, per capita income, consumption, improvement in the living standard of the people etc. of a country are taken to be the indicators of the economic development. Economic development can be the basis for the poverty alleviation or the reduction of un-employment and maximum employment of factors available in a country. Economic development herbs to distribute the national income equally among the various classes of the society along with the increase in material and social welfare. Economic development also helps in poverty alleviation along with improvement in technology, change in social structure and conservation of environment. Economic development also includes improvement in education and health, change in social concept, political stability, progressive legal system etc.

Abstract masculinity

Nancy Hartsock defined “Masculinity as a method of conceptualization whose main emphasis is on mutually exclusive dualities.” Her suggestion accounts for hierarchical dualisms in social institution which supported gender domination. Masculinity isn't established /created on the basis of man’s true identity and difference, but on the basis of an ideal differences which constituted mostly in the cultural difference of Man from others’.

Nancy Chodorow described the aspects of masculinity in western society. She offered a psycho analytics explanation for the male characterized as woman. She argued this because men learned to define themselves not as woman, not as mother, so that masculinity is inevitable having negative identity. She claimed that there could be a conscious break in the construction of masculinity and femininity, if patterns of mothering changed.

Marxist feminists believed that masculinity has played a vital part in the dividing labour force as it had developed historically and the definition of masculinity that infuse our cultures' and belief are permanently deep rooted within the ideology of the family.

Feminist theorists believed that this concepts can be helpful to highlight the importance of gender in dividing the activities of public and private sphere . A particular focus of feminist analysis is on the educational processes by which masculinity is defined and constructed. For e.g., feminist critiques of science point to the fallacious congruence between rationality, knowledge and masculinity.

According to Evelyn Fox Keller “masculine connotes autonomy, separation, distance and particularly objectivity.” Her argument was, masculinity in science is located in the very concepts of science. Not only this but also in the way science separate subjects from objects. The reappraisal of masculinity in men’s studies treated masculinity as a more problematic construct.

Masculinity n the masculinity prevailing in Nepali society

Nepal is a developing country. It has numerous culture and indigenous groups of people living together as one big family. Like each n every surrounding has its defects, in our society to the main problem is of the difference between male and female. In short we can say that the feeling of masculinity as superior is prevailing greatly in all over our Nepali society. Not only during this time period of time (21stcentury) but from an ancient time to the feeling of the masculine group to be superior over the feminine group.
From the historical time till now every one of our society has been showing the masculine as more superior. To justify my statement over the argument of Masculine to be more superior over the feminism, there is some example enlisted as follows:-

1. The construction of Dharahara by bhimsen thapa is also an example of the masculinity to be superior.
2. More of the political parties have leader as male instead of female and only few women as representative.
3. If we observe the construction of statues over all the countries more statues of male is found then female.
4. The right to property is only given to son instead of daughter

In our society there is legal right for every kinds of things including the property right of daughter but in practice it is not true because people of our society believe that women/daughter belongs to other family due to which all the right of property is given to their son and daughter will only get that amount on property which she acquires at the time of marriage from the side of her own father and mother. One more important reason for the masculinity to be more superior then femininity in our society is that 90% of women stop working after they become mother or after marriage. These are the reason why Nepali society is more masculine then feminine. So, until and unless these problems are completely irritated there won’t be any kind of economic, social, and cultural or any kind of development work.