Role in the Transition to Democracy

The wave of democratization that swept southern Europe, Latin America, and Eastern Europe in the mid-1970s and in the late 1980s brought to the fore the relationship between bureaucracy and democracy. In the democracies that have emerged in the last quarter of the twentieth century, the civil service may be far from responsive, reliable, and responsible. A civil service may be far from responsive, reliable, and responsible. A civil service that has been associated with an authoritarian regime can easily be considered illegitimate after the transition to democracy takes place. To prove it legitimate, the civil service must submit to the leadership of new democratic governments. Such governments often begin their terms in office by "cleansing" the ranks of the civil service of authoritarian elements. Thus the civil service of authoritarian elements. Thus the civil service in a new democracy is vulnerable, more so if it has traditionally proved to be inefficient.

Nevertheless, new democracies put a difficult double task to their civil service: to remain weak and pose no threat to democratic government and, simultaneously, to help legitimate the democratic regime by improving its economic performance over that of the previous, authoatarian regime. The evaluation of the performance of the civil service in a new democracy is based in a trade-off between these two demands.

In fact, additional conflicting pressures may be exerted on the civil service of a new democracy. The democratic state needs a civil service that is to a certain extent resistant to all governments in order to safeguard the well being, the security, and the defense if the people living within its territorial boundaries. This demand of the people living within its territorial boundaries. This demand clashes with drive of the government party (or coalition of parties) to use the capacities of the civil service freely to fulfill their election promises. For instance, nationalist governments may want to expand the state freely to fulfill their election promises. For instance, nationalist governments may want to expand the state beyond its boundaries, socialist ones to reform it, neoliberal ones to reduce its economic functions to a minimum. Political parties that govern in new democracies may use the civil service for any of these purposes, depending on their profile and the constraints they face once in power.
The removal of elements of the previous authoritarian regime from political institutions is part of the tradition to democracy, and its extent is heavily debated in young democracies. Still, if the democratic government dominates political institutions, like the legislature and the judiciary, and also permeates the civil service, democracy suffers from the reduction of multiple centers of power into a single one-that is, the governing elite. If, as is often the case after the new democracy is even more concentrated. Chances are that the civil service will become responsive only to the needs of the leadership of the governing party. Democratic consolidation, which followed the initial transition to democracy, leaves muchn to be desired in such circumstances.

Yet the permeation of the civil service by the governing Democratic Party (or coalition of parties) does not necessarily undermine the legitimacy or post authoritarian democracy. In post authoritarian democracies, civil servants cannot be fired all at once, even if they have been politically socialized to serve authoritarian governments. The recruitment of new civil service personnel, with records of resistance against the depend dictatorship, may serve as an injection of democratic legitimacy into a suspect body of civil servants. Otherwise, the existence of an intact civil service that is known to have collaborated with nondemocratic rulers may compromise any efforts to deepen and expand democracy. It should be kept in mind, however, that the deepening and expansion of democracy is often pursed by political elated only to extent that they can control the outcome of opening up institutions, such as the civil service, to democratic participation from below.
In the early phases of the transition to and consolidation of democracy, a state needs a strong government aided by a competent civil service for a number of reasons. During that time a competent civil service is instrumental in keeping at bay military and security forces and countering pockets of supporters of authoritarian rule in other institutions. Moreover, rarely do new democracies emerge amidst economic prosperity. New democratic governments often must grapple with economic stagnation or decline as they strive to consolidate democratic rule. Again, an efficient civil service may play a strategic role in economic recovery and thus contribute indirectly to the legitimating of the democratic regime.

In conclusion, a civil service, which in a new, unstable democracy must be weak in the face of alternating democratic governments and strong in the face of undemocratic challenges and economic adversity, feels strongly the difficulties of democratic consolidation. A young democracy that counts on competing democratic parties to consolidate life disagreeable and resort to the civil service as a pillar of democratic stability. The quest for democracy involves, among other things, striking a delicate balance between the elected government and the civil service.

Change and Reform

The tasks of civil service have changed over the past two centuries, adapting to the changing role of the state in the economy and society. In the beginning of the modern era the role of the state was limited to waging wars and collecting taxes. Gradually, the state took up more functions, such as monitoring the national economy and providing welfare services. The expansion of state activity led to the growth and differentiation of the civil service. For some time now, particularly in developed societies of the poet-World War II era, central government institutions have felt the need for more and increasingly specialized civil servants to deal with increasingly complicated problems that require expert knowledge and technology.

IN some developing and underdeveloped societies, however, the growth of the civil service was not commensurate with need to adapt to economic development and the complexity of available technology. Instead, expansions in the civil service were motivated by the need to absurd excess labor from among internal migrants, the young, and the unemployed and to preserve the leverage exercised by political elites through patronage. The more visible presence of the state in the economy and society then gave rise to demands for new and better service by the state. The new demands on the state were nourished by the labor struggles and the wider participation of the working class in the democratic politics of Western Europe and North America.

Recent debates on the socioeconomic role of the state concern not only the extent of its intervention but also the efficiency with which political and civil service elites steer the economy in an antagonistic international environment and the quality of the services offered by civil servants to the citizens. Whereas some earlier transformations of the civil service were prompted by changes in the relations between state and society, some recent changes can be increased efficiency and imposed services.

The call for greater efficiency has often meant that the size of the civil service is trimmed, as governments-particularly in Europe-privatize services previously offered by large state monopolies (for example, national airlines and telephone companies). Alternatively, contemporary governments seek to modernize the organize the organization and methods of public administration. Such modernization involves training civil servants in new technologies, especially the use of computers, and teaching new skills related to better planning and evaluation of civil service activities. Governments have resounded to the demand for higher quality service by attempting to change the attitude prevailing in the civil service from inertia and aloofness to flexibility, attention to quality work, and sensitivity to the needs of citizens. They are also attempting to inform citizens about the services to which they are entitled.

The System of Positions

The system of positions is an alternative to the career system, but it sometimes applied along with it. In the position system the needs of ministries and public agencies for new personnel are registered. Job openings are outlined, with descriptions of the duties and qualifications of each position. Public employees are hired on a limited contract; when their contract expires, they may be rehired or let go.

The civil servant in the position system does not have the special relationship with the states that the career civil servant does. Although the uncertainty of employment and advancement may be drawback for the position system, there are advantages. The position system is superior to the career system in that recruited employees have specialized skills, and the government enjoys flexibility in hiring similar to that of private enterprises (which hire by position). In the position system, civil servants are recruited not to begin a career period of time, under a contract comparable to those in the private sector. The position system is found into eh United States and, in a particular sense, was used in the Soviet Union and Eastern Europe.

A strong anti-elite sentiment has permeated the organization of the civil service in the United States almost from the country's beginning. In the nineteenth century the American federal bureaucracy was highly politicized: civil service positions were handed out in exchange for political support, an allocation system known as the "spoils system". The abolition of the spoils system was accomplished gradually, beginning with the Pendleton Act of 1883.

In the United States today, job openings are announced in conjunction with job descriptions. Applicants pass through a selection process, based on merit; successful candidates are offered a contract that binds the administration to keep the employee in the same position. The employee may be transferred to other posts after the contract expires. Top positions are also open to competition, but in the late 1970s there was an effort to creator administrative elite, the Senior Executive Service, which included approximately the 6000 highest officials into eh civil service. Still, incoming presidents of the United States layers of the federal administration with temporary advisers. Some degree of politicization characterizes state and local-level administrations as well.

In Canada civil servants are appointed on the basis of merit; they are selected from an inventory of candidates who have successfully passed examinations and interviews in career areas of their choice. Having entered the civil service, Canadians may develop their career through promotion and transfer among several dozen of departments and agencies. Recruitment to new positions is accomplished through competitions, first within public service and then outside public service.

Compared with the career system, the system of positions, as applied in Canada and the United States, allows for more personnel mobility and perhaps a better match of person to task. Yet the position system offers less prestige for the high and middle ranks of the civil service and is vulnerable to wider politicization of the top echelons of the bureaucracy.
With significant variations the system of positions was also applied in Eastern Europe and the Soviet Union under communism. Officially, employment in the communist public administration did not entail a special labor relationship, like the relationship, like the relationship between the civil servant and the state in the West.

In the Society Union, in particular, civil servants did not formally enjoy the guarantee of tenure or the prospect of a career in the administration. Once hired, civil servants could be fired or transferred, but in practice they occupied the same position for long periods of time. The content and development of a civil servants job was not specified in advance, but civil servants who showed competence and loyalty to the Communist Party were compensated with higher-ranking positions. On the whole, because of their access to better goods and services, Soviet civil servants enjoyed higher living standards than the majority of the population, and top bureaucrats had considerable privilege

The Career System

The career system is influenced by the intellectual tradition of German idealism and the concept of the state of the philosopher G.W.F.Hegel (1770-1831). Hegel declared that universal standards should apply to the selection, training, and promotion of civil servants. Appointments to state jobs should be made only on the basis of the objective evaluation of the candidates' knowledge and ability.

In the German idealist tradition the state is conceived as separate from society, which it overseas with the aims of protecting the general interest against individual interests. The theoretical separating if state and society is complemented by the division of tasks between governments, cutes them. The career system, by establishing a lifelong professional relationship between the civil servant and the state, and by subordinating the civil servant to legitimate political authorities, satisfies the mission of the Hegelian state to function as an ideal, impartial arbiter of conflicting societal interests. The civil servant does not have the same status as employees in the private sector but has a special relation to the state, which brings additional duties and fewer freedoms, such as the duty of subordination to the political will of the government and, commonly, limitations on the freedom to strike. The additional burden of obligations imposed on civil servants in theoretically, at least- balanced by increased job security and a respectable salary.

The career system is applied in the public administrations of most Western European states (including France and the United Kingdom) and many postcolonial, independent civil servants are recruited on the basis of examinations of hiring graduates of Oxford and Cambridge Universities with nontechnical education; they reach the top echelons of civil service through a "fast stream" of promotions. Civil servants generally advance in their careers by acquiring experience on the job.

The British career system was solidified after the Northolt-Trevelyan report of 1854, which helped to extinguish the particularize and clienteles that had been evident in the British administration. Later, the British civil service developed into a polymorphous and fragmented set of bodies of civil servants, known as classes. The Fulton report, published in 1968, contributed to the reshaping of the career system by recommending a decrease in the number of classes, a wider pool of candidates for the top positions in the civil service hierarchy, and more specialized in-service training through the establishment of the Civil Service College. However, despite the Fulton committee recommendations, the British civil service was not thoroughly reformed; it remained deficient in openness and accountability.

In France civil servants are also recruited on the basis of examinations. Prospective high level civil servants are trained in an elite school, the Cole National d'Administration. The school, founded in 1945, administers highly competitive entrance examinations, offers coerces leading to specialization, and ranks the members of the graduating class. Under the ranking system civil servants are assigned to different grinds corps and to the levels of positions they will occupy in the bureaucracy. Differentiation along the grade scale provides for greater mobility of civil servants in the hierarchy of positions.

In Germany civil servants are recruited on the basis of competition; initially, they are appointed for a probationary stage, they become career civil servants. Depending on their formal qualifications and the type of job, civil servants are classified into several categories, forming a hierarchy. There is a long tradition of legal education among German civil servants. Not all public employees have the same legal status: the German state has a federal structure, and the competent states (Lander) hire some employees on a contract basis. Civil servants have a special relationship to the state, regulated by provisions of the public interest.

Patterns of Organization

The organization of the civil service involves the recruitment, training, promotion, and transfer of civil servants. Basically, there are two paths along which civil services of the contemporary world are structured: the career system and the system of positions.

In the career system, employees are recruited to the civil service through competitive entrance examinations. Once accepted in the civil service, new employees enjoy tenure. After an initial probationary stage, they expect to pass the whole of their professional life in the bureaucracy, more often than not in particular sector of the bureaucracy where they began. In some cases, they are trained in schools set up to prepare the newly recruited in service training in new fields of interest, such as modern public management, public finance, and computers.

In service training is usually a prerequisite for the advancement of civil servants. The career ladder is a grade scale, consisting of several categories with different entry levels depending on educational credentials. The career path up this grade scale is closely linked to, but not identical with, promotion in the hierarchy of supervising positions - typically, head of bureau, head of section, and head of division of a ministry (or "department" in the United States, "Office" in the United Kingdom).

In the career system, civil servants who have comparable formal qualifications and specialties form homogeneous groups or bodies-known as grinds crops in finance may populate as a group the often powerful ministry of financialization. Fr example, specialists in public finance may populate as a group the often powerful ministry of finance, these groups are officially recognized by law, and, in practice, they limit the freedom of the political masters of the civil service (that is, the elected governments) to transfer civil servants from one domain puff public administration to another. The crops or cores, which consist of high-ranking employees, enjoy prestige, constitute the informal networks inside the bureaucracy, and usually compete among themselves and with political appointees and cabinet ministries for power in the bureaucracy. The phenomenon has led to strife and fragmentation in some civil services.

Role of the Civil Service in Democracy

The role of civil servants in democracy is a long debated question, which was lucidly considered by Weber in his discussion of the bureaucratization of the contemporary state. On the one hand, Weber perceived bureaucracy as a correlate of democracy in the sense that the existence of a civil service, staffed on the basis of merit, contributes to the day-to-day contact between citizens and the bureaucracy. More specifically, the selection and promotion of civil servants according to achievement criteria is a guarantee of the application of universal criteria in the distribution of goods and services by the state to its citizen.

On the other hand, the executive of laws, typically formulated by the government and passed by the legislature in modern democracies, is left to the civil servants. These individuals' interests, related to their personal, ideological, and corporate biases, may find their way into the implementation of the policies of the political elites that have won the confidence of the electorate. In other words, the strategic position of civil servants in democratic political strategic position of the civil servants in democratic political systems, and the leeway they enjoy in the interpretation of systems, and the leeway they enjoy in the integration of laws - particularly in the Nobel situations or when there are conflicts of interest - may allow them to deflect the import of policies initiated by legitimate governments. In short, politicians can carry out the will of electorate only with the help of the civil service, who are not periodically evaluated by the electorate as politicians are, may be able to circumscribe the options of the electorate.

The civil service, then, can be perceived as a potential threat to democracy. The sources of the threat can be found in the growing size of the modern state, the accelerating intervention of government in the economy, and the secrecy and increasing technically of state activities, which together may remove bureaucratic activities from the reach of democratic control. In particular, the growth of bureaucracy, evident in the rise of the numbers of civil servants over time, has long and judicially been considered a factor that can lead a time, has long and justifiably been considered a factor that can lead to a replace to nondemocratic government. The legislature and the judiciary, let along individual citizens, have difficulties monitoring decisions made in the silent corridors of the civil service.

A relevant questions concerns the extent to which the civil service is responsive, reliable, and responsible, as part of the executive branch of government in a democratic regime. A responsive civil service caters more to the needs of the citizens than to its own tendencies to reproduce and grow. A responsive civil service caters more to the needs of the citizens than to its own tendencies to reproduce and grow. A reliable civil service delivers services that measure up to the standards of international economic competition and diplomacy and to the expectations of the democratic government in power as to the thorough implementation of its policies. A responsible civil service is held accountable by the majority of the electorate through the exercise of the right to vote and other forms of political participation. Furthermore, a responsible civil service refrains from discriminating against the parliamentary minority and against social groups who traditionally possess fewer resources, such as social status (racial or ethnic minorities) or political pull (women or the poor), than others.

Composting

Definition of composting

Process of biological conversion of biodegradable organic waste material into a stable end product by microbial activity is called as composting. The favorable conditions such as suitable moisture, temperature are needed for growing of microorganism. The composting process may be aerobic or anaerobic. When the composting takes place in the absence of air, it is called aerobic composting.

Principle of composting
Composting (where elements conductive for the process of breaking down of organic matter like air, moisture, micro fauna etc. are introduced) has been identified as the most efficient way of covering municipal organic waste into manure, thereby recycling nature's resource - nutrients. Aerobic composting is the most widely accepted way of communicating organic wastes. This can be carried out in several stages.

Aerobic Composting
Aerobic composting is the process by which waste is converted into compost in the presence of air. It is a simple method where vegetable waste and dead leaves are converted into manure.
The aerobic bacteria help in disintegrating the vegetable matter into smaller particles. During aerobic composting the water content in the vegetable matter which is more than 75% gets removed. Aerobic composting reduces the waste into nearly one tenth of its original volume. It takes about 2 months to 1 years (depending on the volume of garbage) for the garbage to get completely converted into manure. The simple process of aerobic composting is given by following reaction:-
Organic matter+O2+Nutrient---->CO2 + H2O + Humus +Resistant Organic matter.



Materials for composting
Things that are biodegradable can be composted because their molecular structure allows them to decompose rapidly. Non biodegradable items such as metals, plastics and glass take much longer to decompose and because of this, they are not used for composting. Other substances such as food scraps, paper, pruning, wood, and sawdust are readily composted. The decomposition of some other organic substances is toxic to the environment and thus limits what can be composed.

Soil Pollution

Soil is one of the basic and important resource provided by nature to us(human being). It is the base of every kind of development and origination. As every one knows that the first creature has originated from the soil. Not only from the history but also from the study about the fossils have provided us with the fact that soils important role through out any kind of development, whether it may development of unicellular animals to multicultural animals or it may be the development of human civilization from caveman age to the modern human civilization. We know it preety well that we human being need food to live and the major portion of the food materials that we consume or obtain are from soil(that grow in the soil). As the human civilization have developed the trend of farming of crops have started instead of hunting. Thus we can say how important role did the soil played in the existence of human civilization.

Soil pollution mean depletion of soil with different kinds of pollutants mixed with the soil. Soil pollution is of the great concern as it is directly related to the sustenance of thousands of life forms and particularly health of the human and their agriculture activities.
The pH values at different sites showed the great variation of soil and its quality. The pH value in the dumping is about 7.98 showing the soil of the area is moderately basic in nature. The pH values at other sites are below 7 showing that the soils in these localities are neutral to moderately acidic. The value of pH in the soil can be the good indicator of soil pollution with heavy metals. Lower the pH value, more the metals are able to dissolve in the soil. Thus, the pH value of the soil must be maintained above 6.5 to ensure that the soil is not polluted with metal ions. When the pH value is between 4 and 5, the metals like iron, manganese etc. are easily soluble in the soil; thereby plants become more toxic as they absorb these ion.
The temperatures of the soils of the different study area are affecting the development the different kinds of vegetation. The temperature difference affects the activities of microbial activities differently. As we know some plant grows at cold temperature where as some grows in high temperature. In the same manner the activities of the microbes also differs as the difference in the temperature difference in the soil temperature as the microbes of soil requires moderate temperature for smooth functioning(Microbes of soil cannot work effectively in very high "54 degree C" and cannot work at low temperature"5 degree C").As the soil pollution increase the soil temperature also increases.
The nitrogen availability in the soil is also governed by the soil temperature. Conductivity is highest in dumping site (570µs/cm) and lowest in agricultural land(181µs/cm). Condictivity of barren land is 201µs/cm and that of the forest land is 169µs/cm. Thus conductivity is quite high in dumping site whicch is due to the dominance of ions in the site.

Soil moisture is an essential element for the physical, biological and chemical activities in the soil as well as the agent for photosynthesis and availability of nutrients. The soil moisture in the study area content to lie between 19.6% and 26.78%. The moisture content in the soil indicates the composition of the soil; although it may be affected by many other factors. Moisture is high agricultural land(19.6%).

Human Resource Planning For Productivity

Introduction

Planning provides direction, reduces uncertainty, and minimizes waste and sets standards. No activities can be done without planning. Here we are going to discuss on human resource planning not only planning. HR-planning is the entry point of human resource management. It is concerned with determining human resource requirements, job analysis, recruitment, selection and socialization. HR- planning is also called ‘Personnel planning’, ‘Employment planning’, and ‘Manpower planning’. HR- planning is the process of determining an organization's human resource needs. It is important factor in human resource management programs because it ensures the right person at right place, at right time. It helps the organization to achieve overall strategic objective.

HR- planning is the process of assessing the organization's human resource needs in light of organizational goals and making plans to ensure that a competent, stable work force is employed. It systematically forecasts an organization's future supply of, and demand for, employees. HR-planning is the process by which an organization ensures that it has right number and kinds of people at the right place, at the right time, capable of effectively and efficiently completing those tasks that will help the organization achieve its overall objectives. (DeCenzo and Robbins, 2005). It is the analysis of future personnel requirement referred to the human resource planning (Mondy and Noe, 2006).

HR- planning must be linked to the overall strategy of the organization. It evaluates human resource requirements in advance keeping the organizational objectives, operation schedules, and demand fluctuation in the background (Khadka, 2009). HR-planning should be future–oriented, system–oriented, and goal directed. It reduces uncertainty, develops human resource, improves labor relations, utilizes human resource and controls human resource. Forecasting human resource requirements, effective management of change, realizing organizational goals, promoting employees and effective utilization of human resource are the main objectives of HR-planning.

HR- planning consists of various activities. The main are as follows: (i) forecasting human resource requirements, either in terms of mathematical projections of trends in the economic environment and development in industry or in terms of judgment estimates based upon the specific future plans of a company, (ii) making an inventory of present HR-resources and assessing the extent to which these resources are employed optimally, (iii) anticipating human resource problems by projecting present resources into the future and comparing them with the forecasts of requirements to determine their adequacy, both quantitatively and qualitatively, and (iv) planning the necessary programs of requirements, selection, training and development, utilization, transfer promotion, motivation, and compensation to ensure that future HR-requirements that are properly met.

Scientific HR- planning acquires the right number of qualified people in the right job at the right time, focuses on corporate goal, utilizes human resource, reduces uncertainty, reduces labor cost, keeps records, maintains good industrial relation, and regularizes in production.
Therefore HR-planning is most essential for industrial productivity.

The main aims of this article are to assess the relationship between HR- planning and strategic planning, to identify the approaches and process of HR- planning, and to analyze the essential of HR- planning for industrial productivity. This article is basically concerned with essential of HR- planning for organizational effectiveness and industrial productivity.

HR- Planning and Strategic Planning
Strategic planning is the process by which top management determines overall organizational purposes and objectives and how they are to be achieved (Mondy and Noe, (2006). It assesses the opportunities and threats in external environment and strengths and weaknesses in internal environment. HR- planning is the process of systematically reviewing human resource requirements to ensure right man at right place, at right time. HR-planning plays an important role to achieve strategic objective. Therefore, there is strong relationship between strategic and HR- planning.

Strategic planning scans environment using different forecasting tools and identifies its strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats. HR- planning manages qualified, experienced, competent and motivated employees to utilize strengths and opportunities and to overcome weaknesses and threats. So, there is close relationship between strategic planning and HR- planning. Strategic planning determines corporate strategic objectives and HR- planning provides required human resource to achieve these objectives. Thus, strategic planning and HR- planning are related with each other. Relationship between strategic planning and HR- planning can be explained in two headings. They are: follower relationship, and partner relationship.

Follower relationship
Strategic plan is corporate level plan. It consists of all organizational plans including human resource plan. HR-planning helps in the achievement of corporate plan. HR-planning is always based on strategic planning. HR-planning can not be formulated without strategic planning, and strategic planning can not be achieved without HR-planning. There is hierarchical relationship or follower relationship between strategic planning and HR- planning.

Partner relationship
Equal or parallel relationship is known as partner relationship. Strategic planning and HR- planning have partner relationship between each other. HR-planning acts as a partner to accomplish strategic planning. Human resource management should provide a partner role to HR- planning in the formulation of corporate strategic plans. The main objectives of partner relationship are to: (1) identify human resource needed to achieve corporate goals, and (2) link human resource plan with corporate strategic plans.

Approaches to HR- Planning
HR- planning is the process of determining an organization's human resource needs. It has three approaches. They are: quantitative approach, qualitative approach, and mixed approach.

Quantitative approach
This is traditional approach. It is management-driven approach. It is also known as top-down approach and hard approach. As name implies, it gives focus on required numbers of employees rather than personal aspect of individual. Quantitative approach of HR- planning is foundation of Human Resource Management Information System (HRMIS), Demand Forecasting Technique (DFT), and Work Study Technique (WST).

HRMIS: Human resource management information system gives information about name, post, qualification, experience, remuneration and allowance, performance and updated human resource inventory. Computerized HRMIS facilitates in formulation of HR- planning.

DFT: Trend analysis, mathematical models, economic model, Markov analysis, etc. are major demand forecasting techniques.

WST: Work-study technique determines the work standard of employees/people. Observation, interview, diary, etc. are used as work-study techniques.

Qualitative approach
Qualitative approach is employee-driven. It is also known as bottom-up approach and soft approach. As name implies, it gives focus on personal aspect of individual rather than required numbers of employees.

Qualitative approach of HR- planning is concerned with–(i) matching organizational needs with employee needs, (ii) remuneration and incentive plans, (iii) recruitment, selection, development of employees, (iv) career planning, (v) promotion and transfer, (vi) employees safety, welfare and working environment, (vii) motivational activities, and (viii) maintenance.

Mixed approach
This is combination of quantitative and quantitative approaches. It balances between qualitative and quantitative approaches. This approach of HR- planning produces better result because it is combined form of qualitative and quantitative approaches.

HR- Planning Process
HR- planning is a process. It consists of five stages. They are: assessing current human resource, forecasting human resource demand, forecasting human resource supply, comparing or matching demand and supply forecasts, and action plans.

Assessing current human resources
Assessing current human resource is the first step of HR- planning process. It begins by developing profile of current employees. This internal analysis includes information about the workers and the skills they currently possess (DeCenzo and Robbins, 2005). It is based on human resource inventory, human resource information system, succession planning and job analysis.

Human resource Inventory: Human resource inventory provides detail information about currently available employees in the organization. It includes following information about employees: name, education, performance, experience, training and development, current position, compensation, special skills, capabilities, language, and others.

Human resource information system: Human resource information system is a computerized information system, which assist in the processing human relation information. It provides following information: employee's name, surname, date of birth, address and marital status, employee's current post, employee's salary, allowance, facility and other financial incentives, employee's qualification, experiences, skills and competencies, employee's performance appraisal, and information related with employee's language, culture, religion, and so on.

Job analysis: Job analysis provides information about job currently being done and qualification, experience, skills; competencies that individuals need to perform that job. Job description, job specification and job evaluation are the main objectives of job analysis.

Forecasting human resource demand
Forecasting human resource demand is second step of HR- planning process. It begins after assessing current human resource in the organization. Forecasting human resource demand is the process of estimating future human resource requirements to meet future needs of the organization. There are several reasons to conduct forecasting human resource demand. They are: quantity the jobs necessary for producing a given number of goods, or offering a given amount of services, determine what staff-mix is desirable in the future, assess appropriate staffing levels in different parts of the organization so as to avoid unnecessary costs, prevent shortage of people where and when they are needed most, and monitor compliances with legal requirements with regard to reservation of jobs. Forecasting human resource demand influenced by many factors. The main are as follows:

• Corporate objectives: Forecasting human resource demand influenced by corporate objectives. Objectives may be about- technological changes, restructuring, downsizing, new product line addition, market expansion, and others.
• Environmental forces: Forecasting human resource demand also influenced by environmental forces like economic, political-legal, social-cultural, and technological.
• Labor market: Forecasting human resource demand is also influenced by labor market. Labor market may be domestic as well as international.
• Other factors: Forecasting human resource demand also is influenced by other factors like rate of retirement, rate of turnover, promotion, transfer, etc.

Forecasting human resource demand techniques may be classified under three categories. They are:

• Expert forecasting techniques: Expert's forecasting techniques include Delphi technique, group technique, and survey technique.
• Managerial estimate techniques: Managerial estimate techniques include top-down approach and bottom-up approach.
• Statistical techniques: Statistical techniques include ratio analysis, regression analysis and time series analysis.

Forecasting human resource supply
The third step of HR- planning process is forecasting human resource supply. It begins after assessing current human resource and forecasting human resource demand. Forecasting human resource supply estimates future sources of employees likely to be available from within and outside on organization. In other words forecasting human resource supply measures the number of people likely to be available from within and outside an organization, after making allowance for absenteeism, internal movement and promotions, wastage and changes in hours and other conditions of work.(Armstrong, 1992).

There are several reasons to conduct forecasting human resource supply (Aswathappa, 2005). They are: (i) helps quantify number of people and position expected to be available in future to help the organization realize its plans and meet its objectives, (ii) helps clarify likely staff-mixes that will exists in the future, (iii) assesses existing staffing levels in different parts of the organization, (iv) prevents shortage of people where and when they are must needed, and (v) monitor expected future compliance with legal requirements of job reservations. Forecasting human resource supply is influenced by many factors. The main are as follows:
Exiting human resource: Quality and quantity of existing human resource directly affect the forecasting human resource supply.

External source of supply: Organization can look-out for prospective employees from external source like labor market, educational institutes (Universities, Colleges or Vocational Schools, etc.), training institutes, etc. Such external sources of supply affect the forecasting human resource supply.

Internal source of supply: Organization can internally fulfill its vacancy. Human resource inventory, inflows and outflows, turnover rate, absenteeism rate, job movement rate, promotion, transfer, etc. provide information about employees likely to be available from internal sources.

Forecasting human resource supply techniques may be classified under two categories. They are:

• Managerial judgment techniques: Managerial judgment techniques include replacement planning and succession planning.
• Statistical techniques: Statistical techniques include Markov analysis, trend analysis and regression analysis.

Matching demand and supply forecasts
Matching demand and supply forecasts is the fourth step of HR- planning process. It begins after forecasting human resource demand and supply. A matching of demand and supply forecasts gives us the number of employees to be recruited or made redundant as the case may be.

Action plans
The last step of HR- planning process is action plan. It is prepared to deal with shortage and surplus of human resource in an organization. It helps organization to implement human resource planning. The main activities of action plan are as follows:

• Recruitment plans: Recruitment plans indicate the numbers and types of people recruited at the specific time period.
• Selection plans: Selection plans indicate selection of qualified, competent and experienced people.
• Training plans: Training plans indicate numbers of people at all levels who will undergo training and identify the need of training.
• Retention plans: Retention plans indicate reasons for employee’s turnover. Career planning, incentive, promotions, participation, quality of work life are examples of retention plans.
• Appraisal plans: Appraisal plans indicate strengthened appraisal system. Appraisal plans motivate the employees for enhanced performance.
• Redeployment plans: Redeployment plans identify the employees who need to be transferred and trained.
• Downsizing plan: Downsizing plan is that step which is taken by management to offload of overstaff. It includes golden handshake, layoff, voluntary retirement scheme, and so on.

HR- Planning and Productivity
HR-planning is very essential for productivity. It does following activities to enhance managerial effectiveness and industrial productivity:

Acquires best human resources: HR- planning determines future human resource requirements in an organization. The main objective of HR-planning is to manage right person at right place at right time. Beyond this, it is concerned to job analysis, recruitment, selection, and socialization. Therefore, HR-planning is essential for productivity.

Focuses on corporate goal: HR- planning is goal directed. It gives focus on corporate goal. Human resource goals are linked to overall strategic goal of organization. Such linkage helps to promote better co-ordination, easy implementation, and effective control. Therefore,
HR-planning is essential for productivity.

Utilizes of human resources: HR- planning helps to proper utilization of human resource in an organization. It facilitates in motivation, performance appraisal, and compensation management. And it also identifies surplus or unutilized human resource. So, HR- planning is essential for productivity.

Develops of human resources: HR- planning determines the numbers and the qualification of employees. Recruitment, selection, placement, and socialization are done scientifically. It also provides adequate time and place for seminar, workshop, training and development and other career development programs to the development of human resource for productivity.
Reduces uncertainty: Environmental factors like economic, political-legal, social-cultural, and technological can create uncertainty. HR- planning reduces such uncertainty by forecasting future human resource. It matches demand and supply of human resource. It also develops recruitment, selection, placement, and socialization basis after studying and analyzing such environmental factors. This is very essential for productivity.

Reduces labor cost: HR- planning reduces labor cost, which minimizes cost of production and product price. Labor cost can be reduced by utilizing available labor force effectively. Reduction in labor cost promotes competition ability of organization. Thus, HR- planning is also essential for productivity.

Regularizes in production: HR- planning ensures regularity in production. It determines right person at right job. It also facilitates to provide motivational incentives and development opportunities. This creates regular working environment. Therefore, HR- planning is essential for productivity.

Maintains good industrial relation: HR- planning maintains good labor relations. It is very important to achieve overall corporate objectives. It provides qualified, competent, and motivated personnel to promote labor or industrial relations in an organization. Thus, HR- planning is very essential for productivity.

Keeps records: HR- planning keeps records of human resources. Records are kept of all activities of human resource like recruitment, selection, placement, promotion, performance appraisal, compensation, benefits, rewards, punishment, and so on. Such records facilitate human resource management to take right decision about employees.

Controls human resources: Human resource planning controls human resources. It determines the numbers and kinds of employees. It also controls unnecessary recruitment, selection and placement. There will be no room for nepotism and favourism. Therefore, human resource planning is important in human resource management.

Conclusion
HR- planning is a process by which an organization ensures that it has the right number of qualified person in the right job at the right time. It is never ending process which utilizes human resource and matches demand and supply. HR-planning is directed by overall strategic objective of the organization. The main conclusions of this article are: (i) there is follower and partner relationship between strategic planning and HR- planning, (ii) HR- planning has three approaches. They are: quantitative approach, qualitative approach, and mixed approach, (iii) assessing current human resources, forecasting human resource demand, foresting human resource supply, matching demand and supply forecasts, and action plans fall under HR- planning process, and (iv) HR- planning is essential for productivity and organizational effectiveness because it acquires best human resources, focuses on corporate goal, utilizes human resources, develops human resources, reduces uncertainty and labor cost, regularizes production, maintains good industrial relation, keeps records, and controls human resources.

Civil Service

The organization and personnel of the executive branch of contemporary government. Every contemporary state, democratic or not, has some kind of civil service, however small or large, occupied with the execution of public policies and the implementation of laws/ Civil service originates in the European tradition of public or administration. It is not the same as public service or bureaucracy.

Public service is a broad concept that comes out of the tradition of French administrative law. It is a wider notion than civil service in the sense that it refers to various kinds of service offered by the state to its citizens through a multitude of agencies and organizations of the wider public sector. In more philosophical language, public service is also associated with public interest as a creation of the actions of state authorities.

Bureaucracy, on the other hand, is a system of hierarchically related positions. These offices are occupied by trained, full-time employees who have jurisdiction over an officially delimited area and process written documents. They are supervised by superiors who must comply with technical rules sanctioned by law. This classic conception of bureaucracy draws on the thought of the German sociologist and historian Max Weber (1864-1920). Although Weber's idea of bureaucracy stemmed from the Persian state (the predecessor of modern Germany), it has also been used for the study of large private and nonprofit organizations.

Solid Waste management

Waste is unwanted material left over after the completion of a process. Waste may be in the form of solid, liquid, or even gas. When released into air it causes air pollution, when released into water it forms water pollution and when released into land then it forms soil/land pollution. If any individual produce pollution in the form of gar or liquid then it is called emission and when released in the form of solid then the concept of solid waste arises.

Solid waste management is literally the process of managing of solid waste. It involves the collection, transport, processing and disposal of waste materials. Historically, the aim of waste management has been to prevent or reduce the impact of waste on human health or local amenity.

Waste management practices are often very difficult between urban and rural areas, and residential and industrial/commercial procedures, even within the same local region. Waste management for non-hazardous commercial and industrial wastes is usually the responsibility of the generator. The management and composition of waste materials are quite difficult in developed nations, for a number of reasons.

Solid waste management is one of the major environmental problems faced by all the urban areas of Nepal. The rapid growth of population, urbanization and industrialization has significantly changed the volume and types of waste generated. The uncontrolled handling system of solid wastes in public places such as roadsides, river banks, lake-shores, wetlands etc. has resulted in the solid waste as distinct urban environmental problem.

River Pollution

As human population grows, interactions with water resources on which we are completely dependent, because more and more critical. As population rapidly soars, there is an increasing concurrent prevalence of environmental issues and problems. This is especially true in developing countries where there is less public awareness about environmental problems and an economic need to maximize the use of resources. Water pollution of surface and ground waters is largely a problem in the wake of rising population, rapid urbanization and industrialization. The large scale urban growth of new increased domestic waters while the industrial development manifested either in the growth of new industries or in the expansion of the existing established industries had augmented industrial wastes, the discharges of which into water bodes have brought in hazard of water pollution. Rivers, streams, ponds and lakes receives the heavy load of sewage, industrial effluents and agricultural runoffs. Rivers especially in urban areas are serving as the disposal medium of all kinds of wastes. This condition is very severe in case of the rivers, especially in the rapidly urbanizing cites like those in Kathmandu Valley.

A river may be considered to be polluted when the water in it is altered in composition or condition directly or indirectly because of the activities of man, so that it is less suitable for all or any of the purpose. The main cause of the river pollution in Kathmandu valley is the discharge of excessive untreated sewage into a small river and dumping of solid waste into a small river and dumping of solid waste into the river water and on the riverbank. Such untreated sewage and industrial effluents are the most visible causes of contamination along the urban section of river basins in Kathmandu Valley. The important adverse effects of such river water are loss of aesthetic, recreational and industrial and domestic value of water, spread of water borne disease,
scarcity of safe and clean drinking water, loss of aquatic biodiversity etc.

The water pollution problems in rivers are so serious that the capacity to sustain the aquatic life has already approached to nil at the urban part of Kathmandu. Domestic raw sewage is posing many serious problems than the industrial waste; the concentrations of much toxic sustenance that are originated from which are well within the acceptable limits.