Role in the Transition to Democracy

The wave of democratization that swept southern Europe, Latin America, and Eastern Europe in the mid-1970s and in the late 1980s brought to the fore the relationship between bureaucracy and democracy. In the democracies that have emerged in the last quarter of the twentieth century, the civil service may be far from responsive, reliable, and responsible. A civil service may be far from responsive, reliable, and responsible. A civil service that has been associated with an authoritarian regime can easily be considered illegitimate after the transition to democracy takes place. To prove it legitimate, the civil service must submit to the leadership of new democratic governments. Such governments often begin their terms in office by "cleansing" the ranks of the civil service of authoritarian elements. Thus the civil service of authoritarian elements. Thus the civil service in a new democracy is vulnerable, more so if it has traditionally proved to be inefficient.

Nevertheless, new democracies put a difficult double task to their civil service: to remain weak and pose no threat to democratic government and, simultaneously, to help legitimate the democratic regime by improving its economic performance over that of the previous, authoatarian regime. The evaluation of the performance of the civil service in a new democracy is based in a trade-off between these two demands.

In fact, additional conflicting pressures may be exerted on the civil service of a new democracy. The democratic state needs a civil service that is to a certain extent resistant to all governments in order to safeguard the well being, the security, and the defense if the people living within its territorial boundaries. This demand of the people living within its territorial boundaries. This demand clashes with drive of the government party (or coalition of parties) to use the capacities of the civil service freely to fulfill their election promises. For instance, nationalist governments may want to expand the state freely to fulfill their election promises. For instance, nationalist governments may want to expand the state beyond its boundaries, socialist ones to reform it, neoliberal ones to reduce its economic functions to a minimum. Political parties that govern in new democracies may use the civil service for any of these purposes, depending on their profile and the constraints they face once in power.
The removal of elements of the previous authoritarian regime from political institutions is part of the tradition to democracy, and its extent is heavily debated in young democracies. Still, if the democratic government dominates political institutions, like the legislature and the judiciary, and also permeates the civil service, democracy suffers from the reduction of multiple centers of power into a single one-that is, the governing elite. If, as is often the case after the new democracy is even more concentrated. Chances are that the civil service will become responsive only to the needs of the leadership of the governing party. Democratic consolidation, which followed the initial transition to democracy, leaves muchn to be desired in such circumstances.

Yet the permeation of the civil service by the governing Democratic Party (or coalition of parties) does not necessarily undermine the legitimacy or post authoritarian democracy. In post authoritarian democracies, civil servants cannot be fired all at once, even if they have been politically socialized to serve authoritarian governments. The recruitment of new civil service personnel, with records of resistance against the depend dictatorship, may serve as an injection of democratic legitimacy into a suspect body of civil servants. Otherwise, the existence of an intact civil service that is known to have collaborated with nondemocratic rulers may compromise any efforts to deepen and expand democracy. It should be kept in mind, however, that the deepening and expansion of democracy is often pursed by political elated only to extent that they can control the outcome of opening up institutions, such as the civil service, to democratic participation from below.
In the early phases of the transition to and consolidation of democracy, a state needs a strong government aided by a competent civil service for a number of reasons. During that time a competent civil service is instrumental in keeping at bay military and security forces and countering pockets of supporters of authoritarian rule in other institutions. Moreover, rarely do new democracies emerge amidst economic prosperity. New democratic governments often must grapple with economic stagnation or decline as they strive to consolidate democratic rule. Again, an efficient civil service may play a strategic role in economic recovery and thus contribute indirectly to the legitimating of the democratic regime.

In conclusion, a civil service, which in a new, unstable democracy must be weak in the face of alternating democratic governments and strong in the face of undemocratic challenges and economic adversity, feels strongly the difficulties of democratic consolidation. A young democracy that counts on competing democratic parties to consolidate life disagreeable and resort to the civil service as a pillar of democratic stability. The quest for democracy involves, among other things, striking a delicate balance between the elected government and the civil service.

Change and Reform

The tasks of civil service have changed over the past two centuries, adapting to the changing role of the state in the economy and society. In the beginning of the modern era the role of the state was limited to waging wars and collecting taxes. Gradually, the state took up more functions, such as monitoring the national economy and providing welfare services. The expansion of state activity led to the growth and differentiation of the civil service. For some time now, particularly in developed societies of the poet-World War II era, central government institutions have felt the need for more and increasingly specialized civil servants to deal with increasingly complicated problems that require expert knowledge and technology.

IN some developing and underdeveloped societies, however, the growth of the civil service was not commensurate with need to adapt to economic development and the complexity of available technology. Instead, expansions in the civil service were motivated by the need to absurd excess labor from among internal migrants, the young, and the unemployed and to preserve the leverage exercised by political elites through patronage. The more visible presence of the state in the economy and society then gave rise to demands for new and better service by the state. The new demands on the state were nourished by the labor struggles and the wider participation of the working class in the democratic politics of Western Europe and North America.

Recent debates on the socioeconomic role of the state concern not only the extent of its intervention but also the efficiency with which political and civil service elites steer the economy in an antagonistic international environment and the quality of the services offered by civil servants to the citizens. Whereas some earlier transformations of the civil service were prompted by changes in the relations between state and society, some recent changes can be increased efficiency and imposed services.

The call for greater efficiency has often meant that the size of the civil service is trimmed, as governments-particularly in Europe-privatize services previously offered by large state monopolies (for example, national airlines and telephone companies). Alternatively, contemporary governments seek to modernize the organize the organization and methods of public administration. Such modernization involves training civil servants in new technologies, especially the use of computers, and teaching new skills related to better planning and evaluation of civil service activities. Governments have resounded to the demand for higher quality service by attempting to change the attitude prevailing in the civil service from inertia and aloofness to flexibility, attention to quality work, and sensitivity to the needs of citizens. They are also attempting to inform citizens about the services to which they are entitled.

The System of Positions

The system of positions is an alternative to the career system, but it sometimes applied along with it. In the position system the needs of ministries and public agencies for new personnel are registered. Job openings are outlined, with descriptions of the duties and qualifications of each position. Public employees are hired on a limited contract; when their contract expires, they may be rehired or let go.

The civil servant in the position system does not have the special relationship with the states that the career civil servant does. Although the uncertainty of employment and advancement may be drawback for the position system, there are advantages. The position system is superior to the career system in that recruited employees have specialized skills, and the government enjoys flexibility in hiring similar to that of private enterprises (which hire by position). In the position system, civil servants are recruited not to begin a career period of time, under a contract comparable to those in the private sector. The position system is found into eh United States and, in a particular sense, was used in the Soviet Union and Eastern Europe.

A strong anti-elite sentiment has permeated the organization of the civil service in the United States almost from the country's beginning. In the nineteenth century the American federal bureaucracy was highly politicized: civil service positions were handed out in exchange for political support, an allocation system known as the "spoils system". The abolition of the spoils system was accomplished gradually, beginning with the Pendleton Act of 1883.

In the United States today, job openings are announced in conjunction with job descriptions. Applicants pass through a selection process, based on merit; successful candidates are offered a contract that binds the administration to keep the employee in the same position. The employee may be transferred to other posts after the contract expires. Top positions are also open to competition, but in the late 1970s there was an effort to creator administrative elite, the Senior Executive Service, which included approximately the 6000 highest officials into eh civil service. Still, incoming presidents of the United States layers of the federal administration with temporary advisers. Some degree of politicization characterizes state and local-level administrations as well.

In Canada civil servants are appointed on the basis of merit; they are selected from an inventory of candidates who have successfully passed examinations and interviews in career areas of their choice. Having entered the civil service, Canadians may develop their career through promotion and transfer among several dozen of departments and agencies. Recruitment to new positions is accomplished through competitions, first within public service and then outside public service.

Compared with the career system, the system of positions, as applied in Canada and the United States, allows for more personnel mobility and perhaps a better match of person to task. Yet the position system offers less prestige for the high and middle ranks of the civil service and is vulnerable to wider politicization of the top echelons of the bureaucracy.
With significant variations the system of positions was also applied in Eastern Europe and the Soviet Union under communism. Officially, employment in the communist public administration did not entail a special labor relationship, like the relationship, like the relationship between the civil servant and the state in the West.

In the Society Union, in particular, civil servants did not formally enjoy the guarantee of tenure or the prospect of a career in the administration. Once hired, civil servants could be fired or transferred, but in practice they occupied the same position for long periods of time. The content and development of a civil servants job was not specified in advance, but civil servants who showed competence and loyalty to the Communist Party were compensated with higher-ranking positions. On the whole, because of their access to better goods and services, Soviet civil servants enjoyed higher living standards than the majority of the population, and top bureaucrats had considerable privilege

The Career System

The career system is influenced by the intellectual tradition of German idealism and the concept of the state of the philosopher G.W.F.Hegel (1770-1831). Hegel declared that universal standards should apply to the selection, training, and promotion of civil servants. Appointments to state jobs should be made only on the basis of the objective evaluation of the candidates' knowledge and ability.

In the German idealist tradition the state is conceived as separate from society, which it overseas with the aims of protecting the general interest against individual interests. The theoretical separating if state and society is complemented by the division of tasks between governments, cutes them. The career system, by establishing a lifelong professional relationship between the civil servant and the state, and by subordinating the civil servant to legitimate political authorities, satisfies the mission of the Hegelian state to function as an ideal, impartial arbiter of conflicting societal interests. The civil servant does not have the same status as employees in the private sector but has a special relation to the state, which brings additional duties and fewer freedoms, such as the duty of subordination to the political will of the government and, commonly, limitations on the freedom to strike. The additional burden of obligations imposed on civil servants in theoretically, at least- balanced by increased job security and a respectable salary.

The career system is applied in the public administrations of most Western European states (including France and the United Kingdom) and many postcolonial, independent civil servants are recruited on the basis of examinations of hiring graduates of Oxford and Cambridge Universities with nontechnical education; they reach the top echelons of civil service through a "fast stream" of promotions. Civil servants generally advance in their careers by acquiring experience on the job.

The British career system was solidified after the Northolt-Trevelyan report of 1854, which helped to extinguish the particularize and clienteles that had been evident in the British administration. Later, the British civil service developed into a polymorphous and fragmented set of bodies of civil servants, known as classes. The Fulton report, published in 1968, contributed to the reshaping of the career system by recommending a decrease in the number of classes, a wider pool of candidates for the top positions in the civil service hierarchy, and more specialized in-service training through the establishment of the Civil Service College. However, despite the Fulton committee recommendations, the British civil service was not thoroughly reformed; it remained deficient in openness and accountability.

In France civil servants are also recruited on the basis of examinations. Prospective high level civil servants are trained in an elite school, the Cole National d'Administration. The school, founded in 1945, administers highly competitive entrance examinations, offers coerces leading to specialization, and ranks the members of the graduating class. Under the ranking system civil servants are assigned to different grinds corps and to the levels of positions they will occupy in the bureaucracy. Differentiation along the grade scale provides for greater mobility of civil servants in the hierarchy of positions.

In Germany civil servants are recruited on the basis of competition; initially, they are appointed for a probationary stage, they become career civil servants. Depending on their formal qualifications and the type of job, civil servants are classified into several categories, forming a hierarchy. There is a long tradition of legal education among German civil servants. Not all public employees have the same legal status: the German state has a federal structure, and the competent states (Lander) hire some employees on a contract basis. Civil servants have a special relationship to the state, regulated by provisions of the public interest.

Patterns of Organization

The organization of the civil service involves the recruitment, training, promotion, and transfer of civil servants. Basically, there are two paths along which civil services of the contemporary world are structured: the career system and the system of positions.

In the career system, employees are recruited to the civil service through competitive entrance examinations. Once accepted in the civil service, new employees enjoy tenure. After an initial probationary stage, they expect to pass the whole of their professional life in the bureaucracy, more often than not in particular sector of the bureaucracy where they began. In some cases, they are trained in schools set up to prepare the newly recruited in service training in new fields of interest, such as modern public management, public finance, and computers.

In service training is usually a prerequisite for the advancement of civil servants. The career ladder is a grade scale, consisting of several categories with different entry levels depending on educational credentials. The career path up this grade scale is closely linked to, but not identical with, promotion in the hierarchy of supervising positions - typically, head of bureau, head of section, and head of division of a ministry (or "department" in the United States, "Office" in the United Kingdom).

In the career system, civil servants who have comparable formal qualifications and specialties form homogeneous groups or bodies-known as grinds crops in finance may populate as a group the often powerful ministry of financialization. Fr example, specialists in public finance may populate as a group the often powerful ministry of finance, these groups are officially recognized by law, and, in practice, they limit the freedom of the political masters of the civil service (that is, the elected governments) to transfer civil servants from one domain puff public administration to another. The crops or cores, which consist of high-ranking employees, enjoy prestige, constitute the informal networks inside the bureaucracy, and usually compete among themselves and with political appointees and cabinet ministries for power in the bureaucracy. The phenomenon has led to strife and fragmentation in some civil services.

Role of the Civil Service in Democracy

The role of civil servants in democracy is a long debated question, which was lucidly considered by Weber in his discussion of the bureaucratization of the contemporary state. On the one hand, Weber perceived bureaucracy as a correlate of democracy in the sense that the existence of a civil service, staffed on the basis of merit, contributes to the day-to-day contact between citizens and the bureaucracy. More specifically, the selection and promotion of civil servants according to achievement criteria is a guarantee of the application of universal criteria in the distribution of goods and services by the state to its citizen.

On the other hand, the executive of laws, typically formulated by the government and passed by the legislature in modern democracies, is left to the civil servants. These individuals' interests, related to their personal, ideological, and corporate biases, may find their way into the implementation of the policies of the political elites that have won the confidence of the electorate. In other words, the strategic position of civil servants in democratic political strategic position of the civil servants in democratic political systems, and the leeway they enjoy in the interpretation of systems, and the leeway they enjoy in the integration of laws - particularly in the Nobel situations or when there are conflicts of interest - may allow them to deflect the import of policies initiated by legitimate governments. In short, politicians can carry out the will of electorate only with the help of the civil service, who are not periodically evaluated by the electorate as politicians are, may be able to circumscribe the options of the electorate.

The civil service, then, can be perceived as a potential threat to democracy. The sources of the threat can be found in the growing size of the modern state, the accelerating intervention of government in the economy, and the secrecy and increasing technically of state activities, which together may remove bureaucratic activities from the reach of democratic control. In particular, the growth of bureaucracy, evident in the rise of the numbers of civil servants over time, has long and judicially been considered a factor that can lead a time, has long and justifiably been considered a factor that can lead to a replace to nondemocratic government. The legislature and the judiciary, let along individual citizens, have difficulties monitoring decisions made in the silent corridors of the civil service.

A relevant questions concerns the extent to which the civil service is responsive, reliable, and responsible, as part of the executive branch of government in a democratic regime. A responsive civil service caters more to the needs of the citizens than to its own tendencies to reproduce and grow. A responsive civil service caters more to the needs of the citizens than to its own tendencies to reproduce and grow. A reliable civil service delivers services that measure up to the standards of international economic competition and diplomacy and to the expectations of the democratic government in power as to the thorough implementation of its policies. A responsible civil service is held accountable by the majority of the electorate through the exercise of the right to vote and other forms of political participation. Furthermore, a responsible civil service refrains from discriminating against the parliamentary minority and against social groups who traditionally possess fewer resources, such as social status (racial or ethnic minorities) or political pull (women or the poor), than others.

Composting

Definition of composting

Process of biological conversion of biodegradable organic waste material into a stable end product by microbial activity is called as composting. The favorable conditions such as suitable moisture, temperature are needed for growing of microorganism. The composting process may be aerobic or anaerobic. When the composting takes place in the absence of air, it is called aerobic composting.

Principle of composting
Composting (where elements conductive for the process of breaking down of organic matter like air, moisture, micro fauna etc. are introduced) has been identified as the most efficient way of covering municipal organic waste into manure, thereby recycling nature's resource - nutrients. Aerobic composting is the most widely accepted way of communicating organic wastes. This can be carried out in several stages.

Aerobic Composting
Aerobic composting is the process by which waste is converted into compost in the presence of air. It is a simple method where vegetable waste and dead leaves are converted into manure.
The aerobic bacteria help in disintegrating the vegetable matter into smaller particles. During aerobic composting the water content in the vegetable matter which is more than 75% gets removed. Aerobic composting reduces the waste into nearly one tenth of its original volume. It takes about 2 months to 1 years (depending on the volume of garbage) for the garbage to get completely converted into manure. The simple process of aerobic composting is given by following reaction:-
Organic matter+O2+Nutrient---->CO2 + H2O + Humus +Resistant Organic matter.



Materials for composting
Things that are biodegradable can be composted because their molecular structure allows them to decompose rapidly. Non biodegradable items such as metals, plastics and glass take much longer to decompose and because of this, they are not used for composting. Other substances such as food scraps, paper, pruning, wood, and sawdust are readily composted. The decomposition of some other organic substances is toxic to the environment and thus limits what can be composed.

Soil Pollution

Soil is one of the basic and important resource provided by nature to us(human being). It is the base of every kind of development and origination. As every one knows that the first creature has originated from the soil. Not only from the history but also from the study about the fossils have provided us with the fact that soils important role through out any kind of development, whether it may development of unicellular animals to multicultural animals or it may be the development of human civilization from caveman age to the modern human civilization. We know it preety well that we human being need food to live and the major portion of the food materials that we consume or obtain are from soil(that grow in the soil). As the human civilization have developed the trend of farming of crops have started instead of hunting. Thus we can say how important role did the soil played in the existence of human civilization.

Soil pollution mean depletion of soil with different kinds of pollutants mixed with the soil. Soil pollution is of the great concern as it is directly related to the sustenance of thousands of life forms and particularly health of the human and their agriculture activities.
The pH values at different sites showed the great variation of soil and its quality. The pH value in the dumping is about 7.98 showing the soil of the area is moderately basic in nature. The pH values at other sites are below 7 showing that the soils in these localities are neutral to moderately acidic. The value of pH in the soil can be the good indicator of soil pollution with heavy metals. Lower the pH value, more the metals are able to dissolve in the soil. Thus, the pH value of the soil must be maintained above 6.5 to ensure that the soil is not polluted with metal ions. When the pH value is between 4 and 5, the metals like iron, manganese etc. are easily soluble in the soil; thereby plants become more toxic as they absorb these ion.
The temperatures of the soils of the different study area are affecting the development the different kinds of vegetation. The temperature difference affects the activities of microbial activities differently. As we know some plant grows at cold temperature where as some grows in high temperature. In the same manner the activities of the microbes also differs as the difference in the temperature difference in the soil temperature as the microbes of soil requires moderate temperature for smooth functioning(Microbes of soil cannot work effectively in very high "54 degree C" and cannot work at low temperature"5 degree C").As the soil pollution increase the soil temperature also increases.
The nitrogen availability in the soil is also governed by the soil temperature. Conductivity is highest in dumping site (570µs/cm) and lowest in agricultural land(181µs/cm). Condictivity of barren land is 201µs/cm and that of the forest land is 169µs/cm. Thus conductivity is quite high in dumping site whicch is due to the dominance of ions in the site.

Soil moisture is an essential element for the physical, biological and chemical activities in the soil as well as the agent for photosynthesis and availability of nutrients. The soil moisture in the study area content to lie between 19.6% and 26.78%. The moisture content in the soil indicates the composition of the soil; although it may be affected by many other factors. Moisture is high agricultural land(19.6%).

Human Resource Planning For Productivity

Introduction

Planning provides direction, reduces uncertainty, and minimizes waste and sets standards. No activities can be done without planning. Here we are going to discuss on human resource planning not only planning. HR-planning is the entry point of human resource management. It is concerned with determining human resource requirements, job analysis, recruitment, selection and socialization. HR- planning is also called ‘Personnel planning’, ‘Employment planning’, and ‘Manpower planning’. HR- planning is the process of determining an organization's human resource needs. It is important factor in human resource management programs because it ensures the right person at right place, at right time. It helps the organization to achieve overall strategic objective.

HR- planning is the process of assessing the organization's human resource needs in light of organizational goals and making plans to ensure that a competent, stable work force is employed. It systematically forecasts an organization's future supply of, and demand for, employees. HR-planning is the process by which an organization ensures that it has right number and kinds of people at the right place, at the right time, capable of effectively and efficiently completing those tasks that will help the organization achieve its overall objectives. (DeCenzo and Robbins, 2005). It is the analysis of future personnel requirement referred to the human resource planning (Mondy and Noe, 2006).

HR- planning must be linked to the overall strategy of the organization. It evaluates human resource requirements in advance keeping the organizational objectives, operation schedules, and demand fluctuation in the background (Khadka, 2009). HR-planning should be future–oriented, system–oriented, and goal directed. It reduces uncertainty, develops human resource, improves labor relations, utilizes human resource and controls human resource. Forecasting human resource requirements, effective management of change, realizing organizational goals, promoting employees and effective utilization of human resource are the main objectives of HR-planning.

HR- planning consists of various activities. The main are as follows: (i) forecasting human resource requirements, either in terms of mathematical projections of trends in the economic environment and development in industry or in terms of judgment estimates based upon the specific future plans of a company, (ii) making an inventory of present HR-resources and assessing the extent to which these resources are employed optimally, (iii) anticipating human resource problems by projecting present resources into the future and comparing them with the forecasts of requirements to determine their adequacy, both quantitatively and qualitatively, and (iv) planning the necessary programs of requirements, selection, training and development, utilization, transfer promotion, motivation, and compensation to ensure that future HR-requirements that are properly met.

Scientific HR- planning acquires the right number of qualified people in the right job at the right time, focuses on corporate goal, utilizes human resource, reduces uncertainty, reduces labor cost, keeps records, maintains good industrial relation, and regularizes in production.
Therefore HR-planning is most essential for industrial productivity.

The main aims of this article are to assess the relationship between HR- planning and strategic planning, to identify the approaches and process of HR- planning, and to analyze the essential of HR- planning for industrial productivity. This article is basically concerned with essential of HR- planning for organizational effectiveness and industrial productivity.

HR- Planning and Strategic Planning
Strategic planning is the process by which top management determines overall organizational purposes and objectives and how they are to be achieved (Mondy and Noe, (2006). It assesses the opportunities and threats in external environment and strengths and weaknesses in internal environment. HR- planning is the process of systematically reviewing human resource requirements to ensure right man at right place, at right time. HR-planning plays an important role to achieve strategic objective. Therefore, there is strong relationship between strategic and HR- planning.

Strategic planning scans environment using different forecasting tools and identifies its strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats. HR- planning manages qualified, experienced, competent and motivated employees to utilize strengths and opportunities and to overcome weaknesses and threats. So, there is close relationship between strategic planning and HR- planning. Strategic planning determines corporate strategic objectives and HR- planning provides required human resource to achieve these objectives. Thus, strategic planning and HR- planning are related with each other. Relationship between strategic planning and HR- planning can be explained in two headings. They are: follower relationship, and partner relationship.

Follower relationship
Strategic plan is corporate level plan. It consists of all organizational plans including human resource plan. HR-planning helps in the achievement of corporate plan. HR-planning is always based on strategic planning. HR-planning can not be formulated without strategic planning, and strategic planning can not be achieved without HR-planning. There is hierarchical relationship or follower relationship between strategic planning and HR- planning.

Partner relationship
Equal or parallel relationship is known as partner relationship. Strategic planning and HR- planning have partner relationship between each other. HR-planning acts as a partner to accomplish strategic planning. Human resource management should provide a partner role to HR- planning in the formulation of corporate strategic plans. The main objectives of partner relationship are to: (1) identify human resource needed to achieve corporate goals, and (2) link human resource plan with corporate strategic plans.

Approaches to HR- Planning
HR- planning is the process of determining an organization's human resource needs. It has three approaches. They are: quantitative approach, qualitative approach, and mixed approach.

Quantitative approach
This is traditional approach. It is management-driven approach. It is also known as top-down approach and hard approach. As name implies, it gives focus on required numbers of employees rather than personal aspect of individual. Quantitative approach of HR- planning is foundation of Human Resource Management Information System (HRMIS), Demand Forecasting Technique (DFT), and Work Study Technique (WST).

HRMIS: Human resource management information system gives information about name, post, qualification, experience, remuneration and allowance, performance and updated human resource inventory. Computerized HRMIS facilitates in formulation of HR- planning.

DFT: Trend analysis, mathematical models, economic model, Markov analysis, etc. are major demand forecasting techniques.

WST: Work-study technique determines the work standard of employees/people. Observation, interview, diary, etc. are used as work-study techniques.

Qualitative approach
Qualitative approach is employee-driven. It is also known as bottom-up approach and soft approach. As name implies, it gives focus on personal aspect of individual rather than required numbers of employees.

Qualitative approach of HR- planning is concerned with–(i) matching organizational needs with employee needs, (ii) remuneration and incentive plans, (iii) recruitment, selection, development of employees, (iv) career planning, (v) promotion and transfer, (vi) employees safety, welfare and working environment, (vii) motivational activities, and (viii) maintenance.

Mixed approach
This is combination of quantitative and quantitative approaches. It balances between qualitative and quantitative approaches. This approach of HR- planning produces better result because it is combined form of qualitative and quantitative approaches.

HR- Planning Process
HR- planning is a process. It consists of five stages. They are: assessing current human resource, forecasting human resource demand, forecasting human resource supply, comparing or matching demand and supply forecasts, and action plans.

Assessing current human resources
Assessing current human resource is the first step of HR- planning process. It begins by developing profile of current employees. This internal analysis includes information about the workers and the skills they currently possess (DeCenzo and Robbins, 2005). It is based on human resource inventory, human resource information system, succession planning and job analysis.

Human resource Inventory: Human resource inventory provides detail information about currently available employees in the organization. It includes following information about employees: name, education, performance, experience, training and development, current position, compensation, special skills, capabilities, language, and others.

Human resource information system: Human resource information system is a computerized information system, which assist in the processing human relation information. It provides following information: employee's name, surname, date of birth, address and marital status, employee's current post, employee's salary, allowance, facility and other financial incentives, employee's qualification, experiences, skills and competencies, employee's performance appraisal, and information related with employee's language, culture, religion, and so on.

Job analysis: Job analysis provides information about job currently being done and qualification, experience, skills; competencies that individuals need to perform that job. Job description, job specification and job evaluation are the main objectives of job analysis.

Forecasting human resource demand
Forecasting human resource demand is second step of HR- planning process. It begins after assessing current human resource in the organization. Forecasting human resource demand is the process of estimating future human resource requirements to meet future needs of the organization. There are several reasons to conduct forecasting human resource demand. They are: quantity the jobs necessary for producing a given number of goods, or offering a given amount of services, determine what staff-mix is desirable in the future, assess appropriate staffing levels in different parts of the organization so as to avoid unnecessary costs, prevent shortage of people where and when they are needed most, and monitor compliances with legal requirements with regard to reservation of jobs. Forecasting human resource demand influenced by many factors. The main are as follows:

• Corporate objectives: Forecasting human resource demand influenced by corporate objectives. Objectives may be about- technological changes, restructuring, downsizing, new product line addition, market expansion, and others.
• Environmental forces: Forecasting human resource demand also influenced by environmental forces like economic, political-legal, social-cultural, and technological.
• Labor market: Forecasting human resource demand is also influenced by labor market. Labor market may be domestic as well as international.
• Other factors: Forecasting human resource demand also is influenced by other factors like rate of retirement, rate of turnover, promotion, transfer, etc.

Forecasting human resource demand techniques may be classified under three categories. They are:

• Expert forecasting techniques: Expert's forecasting techniques include Delphi technique, group technique, and survey technique.
• Managerial estimate techniques: Managerial estimate techniques include top-down approach and bottom-up approach.
• Statistical techniques: Statistical techniques include ratio analysis, regression analysis and time series analysis.

Forecasting human resource supply
The third step of HR- planning process is forecasting human resource supply. It begins after assessing current human resource and forecasting human resource demand. Forecasting human resource supply estimates future sources of employees likely to be available from within and outside on organization. In other words forecasting human resource supply measures the number of people likely to be available from within and outside an organization, after making allowance for absenteeism, internal movement and promotions, wastage and changes in hours and other conditions of work.(Armstrong, 1992).

There are several reasons to conduct forecasting human resource supply (Aswathappa, 2005). They are: (i) helps quantify number of people and position expected to be available in future to help the organization realize its plans and meet its objectives, (ii) helps clarify likely staff-mixes that will exists in the future, (iii) assesses existing staffing levels in different parts of the organization, (iv) prevents shortage of people where and when they are must needed, and (v) monitor expected future compliance with legal requirements of job reservations. Forecasting human resource supply is influenced by many factors. The main are as follows:
Exiting human resource: Quality and quantity of existing human resource directly affect the forecasting human resource supply.

External source of supply: Organization can look-out for prospective employees from external source like labor market, educational institutes (Universities, Colleges or Vocational Schools, etc.), training institutes, etc. Such external sources of supply affect the forecasting human resource supply.

Internal source of supply: Organization can internally fulfill its vacancy. Human resource inventory, inflows and outflows, turnover rate, absenteeism rate, job movement rate, promotion, transfer, etc. provide information about employees likely to be available from internal sources.

Forecasting human resource supply techniques may be classified under two categories. They are:

• Managerial judgment techniques: Managerial judgment techniques include replacement planning and succession planning.
• Statistical techniques: Statistical techniques include Markov analysis, trend analysis and regression analysis.

Matching demand and supply forecasts
Matching demand and supply forecasts is the fourth step of HR- planning process. It begins after forecasting human resource demand and supply. A matching of demand and supply forecasts gives us the number of employees to be recruited or made redundant as the case may be.

Action plans
The last step of HR- planning process is action plan. It is prepared to deal with shortage and surplus of human resource in an organization. It helps organization to implement human resource planning. The main activities of action plan are as follows:

• Recruitment plans: Recruitment plans indicate the numbers and types of people recruited at the specific time period.
• Selection plans: Selection plans indicate selection of qualified, competent and experienced people.
• Training plans: Training plans indicate numbers of people at all levels who will undergo training and identify the need of training.
• Retention plans: Retention plans indicate reasons for employee’s turnover. Career planning, incentive, promotions, participation, quality of work life are examples of retention plans.
• Appraisal plans: Appraisal plans indicate strengthened appraisal system. Appraisal plans motivate the employees for enhanced performance.
• Redeployment plans: Redeployment plans identify the employees who need to be transferred and trained.
• Downsizing plan: Downsizing plan is that step which is taken by management to offload of overstaff. It includes golden handshake, layoff, voluntary retirement scheme, and so on.

HR- Planning and Productivity
HR-planning is very essential for productivity. It does following activities to enhance managerial effectiveness and industrial productivity:

Acquires best human resources: HR- planning determines future human resource requirements in an organization. The main objective of HR-planning is to manage right person at right place at right time. Beyond this, it is concerned to job analysis, recruitment, selection, and socialization. Therefore, HR-planning is essential for productivity.

Focuses on corporate goal: HR- planning is goal directed. It gives focus on corporate goal. Human resource goals are linked to overall strategic goal of organization. Such linkage helps to promote better co-ordination, easy implementation, and effective control. Therefore,
HR-planning is essential for productivity.

Utilizes of human resources: HR- planning helps to proper utilization of human resource in an organization. It facilitates in motivation, performance appraisal, and compensation management. And it also identifies surplus or unutilized human resource. So, HR- planning is essential for productivity.

Develops of human resources: HR- planning determines the numbers and the qualification of employees. Recruitment, selection, placement, and socialization are done scientifically. It also provides adequate time and place for seminar, workshop, training and development and other career development programs to the development of human resource for productivity.
Reduces uncertainty: Environmental factors like economic, political-legal, social-cultural, and technological can create uncertainty. HR- planning reduces such uncertainty by forecasting future human resource. It matches demand and supply of human resource. It also develops recruitment, selection, placement, and socialization basis after studying and analyzing such environmental factors. This is very essential for productivity.

Reduces labor cost: HR- planning reduces labor cost, which minimizes cost of production and product price. Labor cost can be reduced by utilizing available labor force effectively. Reduction in labor cost promotes competition ability of organization. Thus, HR- planning is also essential for productivity.

Regularizes in production: HR- planning ensures regularity in production. It determines right person at right job. It also facilitates to provide motivational incentives and development opportunities. This creates regular working environment. Therefore, HR- planning is essential for productivity.

Maintains good industrial relation: HR- planning maintains good labor relations. It is very important to achieve overall corporate objectives. It provides qualified, competent, and motivated personnel to promote labor or industrial relations in an organization. Thus, HR- planning is very essential for productivity.

Keeps records: HR- planning keeps records of human resources. Records are kept of all activities of human resource like recruitment, selection, placement, promotion, performance appraisal, compensation, benefits, rewards, punishment, and so on. Such records facilitate human resource management to take right decision about employees.

Controls human resources: Human resource planning controls human resources. It determines the numbers and kinds of employees. It also controls unnecessary recruitment, selection and placement. There will be no room for nepotism and favourism. Therefore, human resource planning is important in human resource management.

Conclusion
HR- planning is a process by which an organization ensures that it has the right number of qualified person in the right job at the right time. It is never ending process which utilizes human resource and matches demand and supply. HR-planning is directed by overall strategic objective of the organization. The main conclusions of this article are: (i) there is follower and partner relationship between strategic planning and HR- planning, (ii) HR- planning has three approaches. They are: quantitative approach, qualitative approach, and mixed approach, (iii) assessing current human resources, forecasting human resource demand, foresting human resource supply, matching demand and supply forecasts, and action plans fall under HR- planning process, and (iv) HR- planning is essential for productivity and organizational effectiveness because it acquires best human resources, focuses on corporate goal, utilizes human resources, develops human resources, reduces uncertainty and labor cost, regularizes production, maintains good industrial relation, keeps records, and controls human resources.

Civil Service

The organization and personnel of the executive branch of contemporary government. Every contemporary state, democratic or not, has some kind of civil service, however small or large, occupied with the execution of public policies and the implementation of laws/ Civil service originates in the European tradition of public or administration. It is not the same as public service or bureaucracy.

Public service is a broad concept that comes out of the tradition of French administrative law. It is a wider notion than civil service in the sense that it refers to various kinds of service offered by the state to its citizens through a multitude of agencies and organizations of the wider public sector. In more philosophical language, public service is also associated with public interest as a creation of the actions of state authorities.

Bureaucracy, on the other hand, is a system of hierarchically related positions. These offices are occupied by trained, full-time employees who have jurisdiction over an officially delimited area and process written documents. They are supervised by superiors who must comply with technical rules sanctioned by law. This classic conception of bureaucracy draws on the thought of the German sociologist and historian Max Weber (1864-1920). Although Weber's idea of bureaucracy stemmed from the Persian state (the predecessor of modern Germany), it has also been used for the study of large private and nonprofit organizations.

Solid Waste management

Waste is unwanted material left over after the completion of a process. Waste may be in the form of solid, liquid, or even gas. When released into air it causes air pollution, when released into water it forms water pollution and when released into land then it forms soil/land pollution. If any individual produce pollution in the form of gar or liquid then it is called emission and when released in the form of solid then the concept of solid waste arises.

Solid waste management is literally the process of managing of solid waste. It involves the collection, transport, processing and disposal of waste materials. Historically, the aim of waste management has been to prevent or reduce the impact of waste on human health or local amenity.

Waste management practices are often very difficult between urban and rural areas, and residential and industrial/commercial procedures, even within the same local region. Waste management for non-hazardous commercial and industrial wastes is usually the responsibility of the generator. The management and composition of waste materials are quite difficult in developed nations, for a number of reasons.

Solid waste management is one of the major environmental problems faced by all the urban areas of Nepal. The rapid growth of population, urbanization and industrialization has significantly changed the volume and types of waste generated. The uncontrolled handling system of solid wastes in public places such as roadsides, river banks, lake-shores, wetlands etc. has resulted in the solid waste as distinct urban environmental problem.

River Pollution

As human population grows, interactions with water resources on which we are completely dependent, because more and more critical. As population rapidly soars, there is an increasing concurrent prevalence of environmental issues and problems. This is especially true in developing countries where there is less public awareness about environmental problems and an economic need to maximize the use of resources. Water pollution of surface and ground waters is largely a problem in the wake of rising population, rapid urbanization and industrialization. The large scale urban growth of new increased domestic waters while the industrial development manifested either in the growth of new industries or in the expansion of the existing established industries had augmented industrial wastes, the discharges of which into water bodes have brought in hazard of water pollution. Rivers, streams, ponds and lakes receives the heavy load of sewage, industrial effluents and agricultural runoffs. Rivers especially in urban areas are serving as the disposal medium of all kinds of wastes. This condition is very severe in case of the rivers, especially in the rapidly urbanizing cites like those in Kathmandu Valley.

A river may be considered to be polluted when the water in it is altered in composition or condition directly or indirectly because of the activities of man, so that it is less suitable for all or any of the purpose. The main cause of the river pollution in Kathmandu valley is the discharge of excessive untreated sewage into a small river and dumping of solid waste into a small river and dumping of solid waste into the river water and on the riverbank. Such untreated sewage and industrial effluents are the most visible causes of contamination along the urban section of river basins in Kathmandu Valley. The important adverse effects of such river water are loss of aesthetic, recreational and industrial and domestic value of water, spread of water borne disease,
scarcity of safe and clean drinking water, loss of aquatic biodiversity etc.

The water pollution problems in rivers are so serious that the capacity to sustain the aquatic life has already approached to nil at the urban part of Kathmandu. Domestic raw sewage is posing many serious problems than the industrial waste; the concentrations of much toxic sustenance that are originated from which are well within the acceptable limits.

Defining Masculinity

All societies have cultural account of gender, but not all have the concept ‘masculinity’. In its modern usage the type of person on is. That is to say, an unmasculine person would behave differently: being peaceable rather than violent, conciliatory rather than violent, conciliatory rather than dominating, hardly able to kick a football, uninterested in sexual conquest, and so forth.
This conception presupposes a belief in individual difference and personal agency. In that sense it is built on the conception of individuality that developed in early-modern Europe with the growth of colonial empires and capitalist economic relations.
But the concept is also inherently relational. ‘Masculinity’ does not exist except in contract with ‘femininity’. A culture which does not treat women and men as bearers of polarized character types, at least in principle, does not have a concept of masculinity in the sense of modern European/American culture.
Historical research suggests that this was true of European culture itself before the eighteenth century. Women were certainly regarded as different from men, but different in the sense of being incomplete or inferior examples of the same character (for instance, having less of the faculty of reason). Women and men were not seen as bearers of qualitatively different characters; this conception accompanied the bourgeois ideology of ‘separate spheres’ in the nineteenth century.
In both the respects our concept of masculinity seems to be a fairly recent historical product, a few hundreds years old at most. In speaking of masculinity at all, then, we are ‘doing gender’ in a culturally specific way. This should be borne in mind with any claim to have discovered trans-historical truths about manhood and the masculine.
Definations of masculinity have mostly taken our cultural standpoint for granted, but have followed different stratergies to characterize the type of person who is masculine. Four main stratergies have been followed;they are easily distinguished in terms of their logic, though often combined in practice.
Essentialist definations usually pick a feature that defines the core of the masculine, and hang an account of men’s lives on that. Freud flirted with an essentialist definition when he equated masculinity with activity in contract to feminism passivity – though he came to see that equation as oversimplified. Later authors’ attempts to capture an essence opf masculinity have been colourfully varied: risk-taking, responsibility, irresponsibility, aggression, Zeus energy ….Perhaps the finest is the sociobiologist Lionel Tiger’s idea that true maleness, underlying male bonding and was is elicited by ‘hard and heavy phenomena’. Many heavy-metal rock fans would agree.
The weakness in the essentialist approach is obvious: the choice of the essence is quite arbitrary. Nothing obliges different essentialists to agree, and in fact they often do not. Claims about a universal basis of masculinity tell us more about the ethos of the claimant than about anything else.
Positivist social science, whose ethos emphasizes finding the facts, yields a simple definition of masculinity: what men actually are. This definition is the logical basis of masculinity: what men actually are. This definition is the logical basis of masculinity/feministy (M/F) scales in psychology, whose items are validated by showing that they discriminate statistically between groups of men and women. It is also the basis of those ethnographic discussions of masculinity which describe the pattern masculinity.
There are three difficulties here. First, as modern epistemology recognizes, there is no descriptions without a standpoint. The apparently natural descriptions on which these definitions rest are themselves underpinned by assumptions about gender. Obviously enough, to start compiling an M/F scale one must have some idea of what to count or list when making up this items.
Second, to list what men and women do require that people be already sorted into the categories ‘men’ and ‘women’. This, as Suzanne Kessler and Wenfy McKenna showes in their classic ethno-methodological study of gender research, is unavoidably a process of social attribution using common-sense typologies of gender. Positivist procedure thus rests on the very typifications that are supposedly under investigation in gender research.
Third, to define masculinity as what-men-empirically-are is to rule out the usage in which we call some women ‘masculine’ and some men ‘feminism’, or some actions or attitudes ‘masculine’ or ‘feminism’ regardless of who displays them. This is not a trival use of the terms. It is crucial, for instance, to psychoanalytic thinking about contraditions within personality.
Indeed, this usage is fundamental to gender analysis. If we spoke only of differences between men as a bloc and men as a bloc, we would not need the terms ‘masculine’ and ‘feminine’ at all. We could just speak of men’s’ and ‘women’s’, or ‘male’ and ‘female’. The terms ‘masculine’ and ‘feminism’ point beyond categorical sex difference to the ways men differ among themselves, and women difer among themselves, in matters of gender.
Normative definations recognize these differences and offer a standard: masculinity is what men ought to be. This definition is often found in media studies, in discussions of exemplars such as John Wayne or of genres such as a social norm for the behaviour of men. In practice, male sex role texts often blend normative with essentialist definations, as in Robert Brannon’s widely quoted account of ‘our culture’s blueprint of manhood’ : No Sissy Stuff, The big Wheel, The Sturdy Oak and Give ’em Hell.
Normative definitions allow that different men approach the standards to different degrees. But this soon produces paradoxes, some of which were recognized in the early Men’s Liberation writings. Few men actually match the ‘blueprint’ or display the toughness and independence acted by Wayne, Bogart or Eastwood. (This point is picked up by film itself, in spoofs such as Blazing Saddles and Play it Again, sam.) What is ‘normative’ about a norm hardly anyone meets? Are we to say the majority of men are unmasculine? How do we assay the toughness needed to resist the noem o toughness, or the heroism needed to some out as gay?
A more subtle difficulty is that a purely normative definition gives no grip on masculinity at the level of personality, Joseph Pleck correctly identified the unwarranted assumption that role and identify correspond. This assumption is, I think, why sex role theorists often drift towards essentialism.
Semiptic approaches abandon the level of personality and define masculinity through a system of symbolic difference in which masculine and feminism places are contrasted. Masculinity is, in effect, defined as not – femininity.
This follows the formulae of structural linguistics, where elements of speech are defined by their differences from each other. The approach has been widely used in feminist and post-structuralist cultural analyses of gender and in Lacanism psychoanalysis and studies of symbolism. It yields more than an abstract contract of masculinity and femininity, of the kind found in M/F scales. In the semiotic opposition of masculinity and femininity, scales. In the semiotic opposition of masculinity and femininity, masculinity is the unmarked term, the place of symbolic authority. The phallus is master-signifier, and femininity is symbolically defined by lack.
The definition of masculinity has been very effective in cultural analysis. It escapes the arbitrariness of essentialism and the paradoxes of positivist and normative definations. It is, however, limited in its scope – unless one assumes, as some postmodern theorists do, that discourse is all we can talk about in social analysis. To grapple with the full range of issues about masculinity we need ways of talking about relationships of other kinds too: about gendered places in production and consumption, places in institution and in natural environments, places in social and military struggles.
What can be generalized is the principle of connection. The idea that one symbol can only be understood within a connected system of symbol applies equally well in other spheres. No masculinity arises except in a system

Nepal and it's political environment

A country once known as the country of brave Gorkhali, the country where lord Buddha born, where ariniko was born, where the Highest peak,Mount Everest, of the world lies, the country of the the great Himalayas etc. is Nepal. It is a kind of country where every kind of people are found and where every individual lives as brother and sisters (with harmony). A country where every people from every culture respects others culture's festival, where if one individual who is guest are treated as VIP. A country which is rich in natural resources and is like a heaven in the world map.
Every one might be surprised to know why i began writing this way. It is because it is all the facts i have mentioned above has become once upon a time. Now every thing has changed. As we know every thing undergoes certain kind of changes whether it may take few years or many years. Every one know that it has taken millions and millions of years for development of human civilization in the world history. For any country it may take many years to get developed. But it very different in case of Nepal. Once Nepal was like a heaven, prosperous and developing in positive manner. But the process of destruction have become so fast that no one have ever imagined that so fact Nepal would be developed in the process of producing pollution, polluting water resources, and involved in internal conflicts.
Above mentioned facts are true and the main factor for this is those individuals who are being elected by the citizens of this country and their desire to be power so that they can rule the country and collect as much amount of nation's budget for them-self. No one among the political parties are free from corruption and self oriented. No one cares about the countries development and betterment of the countries economic, political environment, increase the life standard of the local individual, increase the countries economic activities, tourism, trade etc. Every one just cares is about how to collect as much amount as they can possibly collect for their own enjoyment. Every party says that we are the representatives of the nation so we should care about the nations development by in reality every one is just saying those just to get to the power.
Due to the political instability and conflicts among the parties non of the activities which are productive have been able to be done. When one party tries to one thing then another party will try to disturb that parties work by organizing bandas, chakka jams, riots, etc. and say that our party is always in the support of development and people's prosperity.

Political environment and development

For the development of any country the country should have to be strong from the security point of view, economic point of view, cultural point of view, tourism point of view etc. Most of all the country should have sound political environment for the development of any country. Only those countries which have sound political environment can develop easily because each and every factors are directly or indirectly related to the political environment and its components.
Stability in political environment means good business environment, proper understanding between all the political parties, all the different types of communities and the people representing them. If there is misunderstanding between the people representing different groups of ethnic group, society, group of people, district, etc then there arises the problem of political conflict resulting into formation of unstable environment where if one party tries to do anything good then another individual will try to oppose all the action done by that individual party.
In any country if there are only two parties then the pr0blem of conflict arises very rarely but if in any country there are more than two party then obviously there will be the problem of conflict among the different individual representing the different parties as a leader. As we know that every person tries to become the head of the country and his all works are directed towards the achievement of the post as the head of the country/nation. So he will do what ever he can do to come to power, it may be by staying in the opposition and disturbing the development activities or by not cooperating with the governing party for the accomplishment of that parties motto or work.
Every thing an individual or any individual country tries to accomplish is by the construction of different types of project, introducing new type of technology so that the people of that country can benefits from that. But what ever may be the reason the main thing required for the introduction of any alternatives is money. For this if the countries economic sector is flourishing then only the country will have sufficient funds for the development works, the countries money income will remain inside the country and all the produced goods will be consumed the ordinary users by paying little amount. But if the business activities are hampered/disturbed then all the big industries will slowly by slowly close down and then the country will have to dependent on foreign goods. When the import will increase then surely the countries budget will go outside of the country and the country will be more poorer and poorer.
So in order to develop any country the political condition should be stable and only all other environment will flourish easily.

Politics

Kate Miller defined politics as any power-structured relationship in which one group of persons is controlled by another. Contemporary feminists refuse to use traditional political concepts (for example, the concept of political delegation, or vicarious politics) and prefer a concept of personalized politics. See Mies (1983).
Liberal feminism is based on a politics of antidiscrimination and opposes laws that establish different rights for women and for men. Liberal feminism accepts that many established political procedures such as universal suffrage, free elections or freedom of assembly, are adequate to eradicate discrimination. The goal of socialist feminist politics, on the other hand, is to abolish these socially constituted categories and develop a form of political with the political practice which can link the personal with the political. Socialist feminism criticizes the ways centralized forms of political organization replicate sexual and other divisions in the larger society. One alternative to centralized politics is participatory democracy where decisions are made by everyone. However, Sheila Rowbotham, and others, suggests that this form of politics is problematic unless everyone has a respect for the other’s experience. See Rowbotham (1979).
Structural functional analysis shows that political socialization, or the process by which a person acquires a political repertoire, occurs through sex roles and childhood experiences with father figures and authority patterns. Hence the goal of radical feminist politics is for women to deconstruct this past and gain control over our own bodies. A radical feminist politics will build a feminist culture in a new society of women-dentered spaces. However, the politics of separatism, Black feminist claim, ignores the way working-class and Black women political interest in common with men. See Combahee River Collective (1981).

ACID RAIN

The precipitation of acidic material in the atmosphere in the form of rain is known as Acid rain. It is caused due to increase in hydrogen ion in atmosphere. Usually rain is very much useful for the organism (plant, animal) and environment. But when the content of acid is found to occur more in the atmosphere then the rain will be harmful. Acid rain is harmful for plant, animals, marine organisms, along with different kinds of infrastructures through the wet deposition. In any surrounding or environment when there is excess emission of compound containing ammonia, carbon, sulfur and nitrogen the danger of mixing of these compounds with water increases resulting into the creation / production of acid rain. Since 1970s Different measures have been undertaken by different government of different countries for the reduction of production of these compounds mentioned above into the Earth’s atmosphere.

As the industrial revolution began to spread the development of new technology, new way of treatment, new type of vehicle are being constructed or made. But this trend of development has also resulted into the emission of more and more amount of emission of the above mention compounds. For the first time acid rain was discovered during 1852, but detailed studies about the acid rain has begun during 1960s. Robert Agnus Smith was the first individual who had first time described about the acid rain and its effect on its surrounding environment. The effect of acid rain is seen more seen in Europe, China, USA etc where sulfur containing coal have been continuously being burned up to generate heat and electricity.

Acid rain is the result of the industrial revolution but is affecting the living and non living things in different ways. For example many of he aquatic animals are dying due to the effect of the acidic rain water. Not only the aquatic animals but also the forest are also been affected by the acid rain . An example for the effect on the vegetation due to the acid rain is the rain forest or Jizera Mountains, Czech Republic. The effect of acid rain is seen more on different kinds of plants but the effect of acid rain can be reduced on the food crops by the use of lime and different kinds of fertilizers to maintain the level of loss of nutrition from soil.

As every individual knows clearly that when acid reacts with limestone then limestone will slowly get reduced . Not only the limestone but also in different types of rocks the effect of acid rain is seen clearly. When the acid rain begins then the outer surface of the house will suffer heavily due to the effect of acid rain. Not only the effect of acid rain is seen in buildings but its effect is also seen in the different kinds of statues, stone tablets, stone sculpture. To know it properly we can also see the following equation
CaCO3 (s) + H2SO4 (aq) =CaSO4 (aq) + CO2 (g) + H2O (l)
Here it is shown that when sulfuric acid reacts with the compound containing calcium then calcium sulfate carbon dioxide and water is formed.

As we know the symbol of love is the Taj Mahal constructed by the Great Khan king of Mugal emperor known as Shah Jahan in the memory of his beloved wife. But due to the danger of acid rain there has been more concern of people towards the damaging of the outer surface by the acid rain. Not only taj mahal but also on different types of wonder the danger of acid rain have increased.

Reforestation

Reforestation is replanting of trees and protecting the forest reserves that already exists. This is an important factor that the people should be made aware of because Nepal is a country that IS heavily dependent on agriculture and goods farming is directly dependent on natural factors.

Trees are very valuable to the human race, economically and health wise. There are many reasons why we should have reforestation. On being mostly that we need forests to live, without which the carbon cycle cannot be completed, and without which there would be desertification. we must remember that forest do not grow as easily as they used to because of fires and other disasters. This is why many forests are planned and cared for. Most of us will never know how they form out because for a forest to completely grow, it needs within anywhere from 60 to 100 years to grow.
Trees not only bring rain but it helps prevent landslides too. This is the most important factor in a farming communities. During drought the amount of extra rain will be like blessing for the farmers.
Replanting of forests is very crucial ti the human race. The earth depends in many cycles, where one organization depends on the other because of what it does. We exhale carbon dioxide, which the trees intake and give us oxygen back during their photosynthesis.
This is the 21st century in which we are living. New technology are being developed for the betterment of the human life. But for the development of the society and the country we are using the resources too much and depleting the no. of trees being currently found in this world. We are doing every thing and remembering everything but slowly by slowly forgetting the importance of the forest and trees. So, Before i end this topic i would like you all individuals to remember not to cut down trees and try to plant as much as possible trees you can.

Marriage: A restriction for women

Marriage is the unification of two different individual into a kind of relationship for a life time. From the pre-medieval age there had been a tendency of sending of women to men’s house in the form of bride. When a women is in the house of her parents she stays as a child and when she gets transferred to her husband get converted into women. She will enjoy full freedom when she is in her parents’ house. But as she enters into a relation of marriage then her days of freedom will slowly by slowly vanish. Her new responsibility is towards her husband’s father, mother, and whole family of husband.

During the old ages in Hindu society husband were assumed as god. Women used to believe that the husband can do anything and women were just to stay inside their corridors. They were not allowed to interact with unknown men. They used to think that everything a man does is right and even if the man bits the women she used to pray her husband.
But as the technology has got advancement and the concept of equal education system had developed. Now women get full freedom in the written form but still she is being tortured in different forms. During the time before marriage she has to obey her parents rules and when she reach her own house after marriage then also she is not given full freedom by not allowing to work, not allowing to interact with unknown individual. When she first gets married then she has some responsibility towards her husband and her father-in-law, mother-in-law and other members, and when she attains the age of mother hood or becomes mother then she is more restricted to do any other things and should pay full attention towards her child too.

Change in climate and perception of people towards it

In this 21st century the problem related to climatic change had been of main concern. As mentioned in the previous article of Climate change and its impact on the human life, it had been made clear to us about the different reasons for climatic change, and its different impact on the human civilization.

The impact of this climatic change is seen in different sectors especially in farms. Farmers are too much affected by the climatic changes because of the untimely rainfall. Due to the untimely rainfall and unpredictable nature of climate it has become harder for farmer to plough any particular kind of crops which can be only be grown at a certain climatic condition. Like some crops like rice needs rainy season but it has become difficult to predict the exact time for the rainfall.

The effect of the climatic change is more seen in those countries which are agriculture based and posses very less access towards the technology. All the developed countries maintain some sort of way for plugging and irrigating their farms for crop and vegetable production but for those underdeveloped countries it is very difficult to irrigate. So, those farmers from those countries should mainly depend upon the rain water. But due to the change in the climate it has become very difficult for those farmers to grow any type of crops.

A survey done by myself during 2009-02 in the area of hilly side of Pokhera (Lwang, Sikhelekh, one of the tourism site of Nepal), I found that people whose main occupation was land farming and cattle farming have changed their occupation from farming to foreign workers. It is mainly due to the change in the climatic change and untimely rainfall; it had become very difficult for them to do the irrigation of crops. Not only this but due to global warming the snow caps are getting melted more faster then ever predicted so due to which the natural water stream has also been drastically disturbed(All the sources are slowly getting dried up).

Climate change and its impact on the human life

This is 21st century and during this century the most important topic is the change in the pattern of climate and the impact of the change in the human as well as plant and animal’s life. The main reason for the climatic change is increasing temperature, global warming, pollution, increasing population etc. As everyone knows clearly that the human civilization has developed from the caveman age to coin age and the process of development kept on increasing by reaching this modern 21st and will reach the age of robotics and so on. No matter which ever age do the human civilization reach it will keep on inventing new and improved technology for the effective and efficient utilization of human as well as non-human resources. Like everything has its own type of positive or negative impact on the human civilization. The positive impact will be the technological advancement for betterment of human life. And the negative impact is the environmental pollution and dettoriation of natural resources whether it may be raw materials, non renewable resources or renewable resources.

As mentioned above about human civilization we conclude that as human civilization has developed from caveman age till the modern age new and new improved technology have been constructed , but on the contrary it has also resulted in the depletion of natural resources like petroleum products, forests, water resources, minerals, soil, air etc. Not only this but also the depletion of atmosphere is also done which resulted the depletion of ozone layer(which prevented us from different types of cancers caused due to the exposure of human and animal’s to the UV rays of the sun).
As we know that the human being is over-utilization of petroleum product and excess use of too much CFC producing equipments has resulted in the increase in the level of co2. This increase in the level of carbon dioxide and other type of pollution produced by the industrial sectors has increased the tendency of melting down of all the snow of mountain caps, glacial lakes not only this but also the melting down of Big icecap of the both poles (north and south) have resulted in the increase in the level of ocean water.
As we know that everything has been in balance by the balanced proportion of one element with another. It is the rule of nature. It is also applicable in the case of ocean water which contains 50% of pure water and 50% of salinity in it. Due to the balanced proportion of water and salt level in ocean water all the condition of the natural balance was in equal proportion. But due to the mixing of the melted ice water in the ocean have resulted in the increase in level of water in the ocean and the balance between salt and water in ocean water have been disturbed. Due to this the pressure belt also shifted from one position to another resulting the untimely rainfall, bad weather condition or the change in the climatic condition everywhere in the world.
Due to the mixing of icy water in the ocean water not only the change in the climatic condition is seen but also the ocean water has also increased resulted in the disappearance of small island countries. Not only this but also the problem of tsunami and Katrina has been occasionally been seen now a days.